Relation.doc: A list of semantic relations for use in the FACTOTUM(R) Thesaurus. Copyright (C) 1985 by MICRA, Inc., Plainfield, N.J. ----------------------------------------------------------------- Last edit 15-Oct-1995. 177 Predicate relations, 7 Specialized predicate relations, + 15 contextual relations, one instance, 1 extension, and 3 metarelations (assertion, belief, and desires). For additional explanation regarding the motivation, origins, and methodology for defining these relations see also the accompanying file "fsnrel.doc". The following list of semantic relations started with the relations in the UMLS metathesaurus. (Index numbers up to 31 are identical to, or subsets of, or related to the UMLS relations). This list was supplemented by a scan of the Roget's 1911 thesaurus. Relations were added when they appeared necessary to relate the words appearing within one major category to each other, or in some cases, to differentiate words from each other (provide a partial definition). These relations and the associated notation have been evolving to meet the needs of representing relations between words, as they are encountered, and there is therefore little systematicity in the notation at present. After most of the semantic relations have been defined, the notation will be reviewed to be certain that the meaning of each aspect of the notation is well-defined. There are two meta-level relations: {{asserts}} and {{believes}} which take an assertion as an argument. What will have to be included eventually, but isn't yet, is a notation for replaceable arguments within phrases, such that any synonym will be equally valid. Also, in many relations the subtypes are equally valid, but in others the subtypes are not; an additional notation would be useful to indicate this fact. Distinguishing the two types of relations will be important. For each relation, there should be a relative weight which controls the depth to which search through linkages will proceed while constructing the logical representation of the utterance encountered. This is indicated by [RN=*] in the explanation part. Few weights have yet been assigned; eventually, these should be determined by scanning of text. The weights are asymmetric, and the values range from 0 to 1.0. In some cases, the closeness of relations seems to be affected by whether the related concept has its primary location in the same main entry as the first concept of the relation. This is difficult to quantify, and cannot be relied upon as a consistent principle, particularly in view of the relative arbitrariness of placement of the "primary" locations. But in general, if a search procedure assumes that concepts within a main entry are more closely related than equivalently-linked concepts in disparate entries, this will be true more often than not. The addition of a new relation may seem to a certain extent arbitrary. For example, we could divide the "part" relation into more specific relations relating to parts of different types of concepts. In fact, we have done that with time, and defined a relation "temporal_part_of". The arbitrariness resides in where the relation will be located, not in whether it will exist. If the temporal_part relation were not specified separately, the same procedures required to understand temporal parts would have to be included in the "part" relation itself. Ideally, the number of relations should be minimized in order to make it easier for editors to enter such data; after the first scan is complete, opportunities to consolidate infrequently used relations will be examined. Occasionally, a concept may appear to warrant definition as a relation, as for example "father" or "mother". One test used to decide whether a concept should be a relation is to ask whether the "relation" relates a base concept to only one other concept, or whether it can specify more than one. If it specifies only one, then we leave that concept as a concept node, and find another concept to relate it to the base concept. In the case of "father", we use the relation "begets", which specifies biological parentage for living organisms. For some such cases, the relational concept is specified as a subtype of the concept "relation" (R9 in the semantic network). This means that in text, a word labeling that relational concept may be followed by the case-marker "of", which will precede and mark for some specific concept related to that relational concept. The semantic relations are intended to be in general defeasible, but will hold in most cases. The relations are intended as relations between synonym-groups (syngroups). Usually, a relation holding between two types will also hold between the type of the base word and the subtypes of the related word, but this is not always true. For example: at P2.3.1.3.4.4.1 a biochemical is defined as a substance produced by an organism. All organisms produce some biochemical, and all biochemicals are produced by some organism. But not all organisms produce all biochemicals. There is also the problem of synthetic biochemicals. We have not yet defined a universal procedure to determine when relations between all subtypes are implied by a relation. It is likely that such a universal procedure will not be found, and the necessary distinctions will have to be part of the procedural code for the individual relations. It may be possible, if the relations are carefully defined, to have relations marked with the "!" mark hold thus: all subtypes of one side relate to the general type of the other side (even though not all subtypes of one side will relate to al subtype of the other side). The result of this will be to allow all subtypes of one side to possess a slot of the type of the other side. The value of this slot will be an unknown to be determined. The thesaurus has not yet been carefully examined to see if that always holds. The relations are broken down into four categories: Predicate relations the largest category, contain most of the UMLS relations. These relations may be negated by prefixing "not_" to the relation, as in {{not_component_of(salt): hardtack}}, which means that hardtack has no (added) salt. Contextual Relations are used for words which express a particular concept in a specific context. The context may be subject-matter, or grammatical context. Wherever the contextual relation {[in_frame()]} appears together with a predicate relation, the predicates must be interpreted as applying only in that context. Thus it might be misleading to extract out the predicate relations and list them separately. Specialized relations are relations which appear in special contexts, such as fields of study. The UMLS relation "derivative_of", used for chemical structures, is an example of this. Instantiation is a single relation, pointing to an entity in the real world. This relation is not just a relation among words which are types, it asserts the existence of an individual with a particular name. Examples would be names of individuals (famous artists, entertainers) and corporations, which are encountered with enough frequency to warrant inclusion in a dictionary. In a proper knowledge base, all assertions should have a source, but here the source will be absent. It may be sometimes less than clear when a word is an instantiation. A Zamboni is a brand-name for a machine which smooths ice in ice rinks. It is also used as a generic term for such machines. Such a word would not be considered an individual instantiation, in this classification. Nor would a Caterpillar tractor. Even so, these words presuppose existence of such specific items. But the principle guiding the designation of an instantiation is whether the instance is a named individual (a corporation is considered as such). Also, some things not concrete objects have instances, for example, titles of nobility are listed as instances of titles, at the same time that they are classified as types of people. Extension is similar to instantiation, in that it refers to an object in the real world. But it is used when more than one word, representing more than one intensional object, refer to the same physical object. In a sense, this is a type of synonymy, but since the words have different intensions, they are not synonymous in the sense of being valid replacements for each other. The classic example is the use of "morning star" and "evening star" to refer to the same object, the planet Venus. An example from biochemistry would be the use (by different research groups) of "cachectin" and "tumor necrosis factor" to refer to the same substance. Note that this is an abstract substance in this case, i.e. different instantiations of the same type of substance. So this relation does not require that the "extension" be one and the same physical object, only that two words refer to the same physical concept but are not used as synonyms. Confusing? ============================ Bracket constraints In certain cases, expression of the full detail of a semantic relation requires additional information, in order to be fully understood. We use square brackets immediately following a word to indicate constraints on that concept. examples: [num=$] within relations, specifying that the number of items which satisfy the relation, e.g. {{has_part(bicycle): wheel[num=2]}} [val=$] usually used with {{has_property}} to indicate a word specifying a specific value of that property. For example, a scissors has a blade, but so does a knife. To distinguish the two, it is necessary to note that a scissors has two blades, as opposed to the one of a knife. We include a specification of that additional property in square brackets, e.g. {{has_part(scissors/shears): blade[number=2]}}. The property "number" refers to the blade, and the value of the property follow the equals sign. These bracket constraints must be viewed as an integral part of the relation, and in some cases the relation is only true or only makes sense when the bracket constraint is included. Such constraints on the fillers for these relations may be recognized by the construction "square bracket + alphabeticals + equals sign", followed by the value of the constraint, followed by the closing square bracket. Such relations will usually be found within the curly brackets: {{has_part(bicycle): wheel[num=2]}}. We can also use inequalities to express the idea of maximum or minimum: {{has_member(organization): person[num=>0]}}. Here the equals sign serves to signal the constraint relation. If we want to say "greater than or equal to", we will use a second equals after the inequality: {{has_subtype(integer[val=>=0])}} positive integer. The inverse also holds, as in: {{part_of(wheel[num=2])}} sulky, desobligeant[French]. Predicates with objects can be similarly expressed, using the symbol "obj=" followed by the object of the verb. For example, to express the idea that a paddy wagon is used to transport prisoners by the police, we use: {{uses(police)}} {{function_of(transport[obj=prisoner])}} black Maria, paddy wagon. The modifications can also express requirements for the subject of an action, as in: {{has_subj_requirement(change, R140)}} changeableness, instability. This can also be further modified by using the modifier "of" to further define the subject of an action: {{has_subtype(giving)}} {[in_frame(will, R771b)]} {{required_for_subj(death[of=giver])}} bequeathal, willing; devising. In this case, the "of" is actually redundant, but can be used to reduce the chance of error (human or machine). A specialized bracket constraint is used to indicate a distributive mode for actions, where a word is used to indicate that a person performs and action on several objects, but that action is performed on only one such object at a time. {{has_partner(swinger): mate[distrnum=>2]}} means a swinger has more than two partners, but only one at a time. Lexicographic relations In addition to the relations here, several well-known relations of lexicographers are also used in the thesaurus, especially [cause to become] = [render ...]. These are usually in square brackets, but the usage is still evolving and has not yet been well defined. These have a function similar to the "bracket constraints", above. The "render" relation will eventually become a defined semantic relation, but because it is used frequently in the original thesaurus as a phrase, the extraction and regularization of this relation will be postponed until a later phase. For expressing the referent function of adjectives, we use the "contextual" relation {[referring_to}}, as in: {[referring_to(joint)]} arthro-. Other lexicographic relations are used in square brackets after a word in a semantic relation; e.g. [of=$] after a word in a relation, this works as a function to narrow the scope of the word to the subtype of the word which is usually a property of the word "$". It will probably be necessary to specify more carefully the various uses of this "OF" function, but at the initial stage they will all be confounded in the single usage. The relations added in the course of scanning the Roget's thesaurus do not have any systematic theoretical foundation; they were added only as they appeared to be necessary to express prominent or useful relations between words clustered in the individual entries. Preserving Subtype. Most of the relations preserve the subtype relation. That is, if one of these relations occurs before a paragraph within a section, the words within that section will still be subtype of the headword, even if the subtype relation is not specified. Some of the relations supersede subtype, that is, the words in that paragraph are not subtypes. This will be true when the relation is between the headword and the related word, e.g.: N. automobile. {{has_part}} motor. But when the relation to the listed word specifies a relation to some word other than the headword, i.e. the relation has an argument, such relations will in general preserve the subtype, e.g. N. opening. {{&has_part(garment)}} buttonhole. In this case, a buttonhole is a subtype of opening, even though a buttonhole is not a subtype of a garment. One exception to this is when the argument of the relation has its primary location in that section. For example, we might want to put pistons in under automobiles, then we will have: N. automobile. {{has_part}} motor. {{has_part(motor)}} piston. In this case, a piston is not a subtype of automobile!! This requires some non-trivial processing to recognize. In order to avoid possible errors in such reasoning, in some cases we demarcate the beginning of that part of the section where subtype is no longer to be considered a default, using a double dollar sign "$$". This is not yet dome consistently. The relations which supersede subtype are (with their inverses): (1) All of the physically related relations -- has_part, has_member, has_conceptual_part consists_of processed_into component_of, main_component_of, major_component_of causes, mcauses (2) all of the location relations location_of, rel_loc_of works_at, has_habitat adjacent_to, interconnects, surrounds contains traverses (3) all of the temporally related: (some, such as precedes, may preserve subtype, but not consistently, so these must have subtype specified explicitly if it applies) (4) has_metaphor Implied Subtype Certain relations imply that one of the arguments are of a certain subtype, even if that argument is not marked implicitly or explicitly elsewhere in the thesaurus as having that subtype. The marking of the argument with its implied subtype is probably best performed during the interpretation phase of language understanding, by the attached procedure for the semantic relation, when such words occur in text. Alternatively, if the lexicon is invariably generated from the semantic network, and not otherwise supplemented, then the implied relations may be expanded at time of lexicon generation. {{has_part}} parts of physical objects are also physical objects, and vice versa {{trait_of}}, {{has_trait}} only a person has a trait. {{performed_by}} this relation is for human actors. {{member_of}} a member of a human group is a human. *=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=*=* I. PREDICATE RELATIONS: These are indicated by double curly brackets. Thus "{{has_part(motor)}} drive shaft." indicates that a motor has a part which is a drive shaft. In some cases, the "part" relation may be used, in addition to the subtype relation, to relate one object to another, e.g., and "additive" is included under "food" as a subtype, but also we designate: {{&has_component(food)}} additive. The special relation {{isnota}} is used to prevent the inheritance of properties from higher categories. This is used in a few case where the hierarchy is not strictly correct. Such cases should be eliminated as the hierarchy is rationalized. Another use is to contradict certain expectations, e.g. under "salary" we have "benefits", which is a part of salary. But salary is usually money, so to clearly state that "benefits are not money", we use: {{has_part(salary)}} {{isnota: money}} benefits. We could also use the notation: {{has_part(salary)}} {{!:not_has_subtype(money}} benefits. to mean the same thing. Note that symmetrical relations are only partly symmetrical, in that a necessary relation in one direction may not be necessary (but must at least occasionally be true) in the other direction: i.e. {{adjacent_to(shipyard): waterway}}, *but* {{&adjacent_to(waterway): shipyard}} Past events. In order to express the concept that some event must have happened in the past, we add a "_p" to a relation. Thus: {{!!begets_p(parent): child, @P2.3.2.3.6.2.2}}. This means that a parent is defined as a person who at some time created a child. The "_p" postmodifier can also be used for properties, to indicate that the property held in the past (but not in the present). [[pred]][[rel]] P1 HIERARCHY/CLASS INCLUSION ------------------------------ F1 1. is_a [RN=1] point to supertype has_subtype (in UMLS, the term inverse_is_a is used) has_subtype_x designates an exhaustive list of mutually exclusive subtypes. Thus the list may be considered as disjoint. This can be used to exclude possibilities. The usual subtype does not imply that the list of possibilities has been exhausted. The "_x" used in other relations also implies a disjoint and exhaustive list. has_subtype_d is also an exhaustive list of mutually exclusive and disjoint subtypes, but the subtypes are not necessarily the only subtypes of the parent type, they are exhaustive only with respect to the specifically specialized subtype in that one relation. F2. has_domain this is used to categorize certain concepts as potentially belonging to one of several higher categories. It is intended at present only to clarify the meaning of the concept, but is not an inheritable slot. If inherited, it would cause all subtypes to have multiple (and in some cases exclusive) type! In fact, it means that the subtypes may be of only one of the indicated types. This is used in cases where it is not possible to find a single higher class. domain_of See also "overlaps with" under "similarity" F3 1a. isnota meaning: do not continue chain of inheritance from (symmetrical) higher categories, i.e. Not a proper subtype. e.g. "workplace" is located under building, and by default will be classified as a type of building, but some subtypes of workplace are not buildings. Workplace should be relocated! P2 PHYSICALLY RELATED: P2.1 Parts [[part]] <-- 2a, 2b and 4 are a related group defining the general concept part_of. See also 23, conceptual_part_of --> F3 2a. part_of distinguish part from member of a group = 2b, and component material = 4. By default, it is assumed that a "part" defined by this relation may be removed, or otherwise missing in specific individuals. For parts which cannot be removed without destroying the object, use: "has_epart" has_part partition_of a "part" which may be formed by cutting or dividing or severing, but is not a natural and obviously distinguishable part (i.e. a part with essentially the same properties as the whole). Mostly used for pieces of things. has_partition F4 2f. opart_of optional part, always separable and non-essential for primary function of the whole. Cannot apply to living things. Can be used for accessories to manufactures items. has_opart F5 2g. epart_of essential part, whole cannot function without it. For living things, same as vital part. has_epart F6 2h. nepart_of nonessential part, whole can function without it, but it is not considered separable, as an opart is. For living or non-living. has_nepart {{has_nepart(human): leg}} F13 2k. has_functional_group chemistry only, for subparts of chemicals This is "specialized", but is here because it is a "part" relation functional_group_of <-- for the member_of relation: note that this does not imply that the individual members can *only* occur as part of a group, but that they *may* occur as part of a group, with the specified name. e.g. {{member_of(tree): forest}}. We also distinguish the cases where the group is composed only of the specified members as "xmember_of" and has_xmember". This is to allow for other components, as in a forest where there are not only trees, but also undergrowth, and the land itself. In the cases where member_of points to a geographical entity (e.g. forest) it also implies &has_location --> P2.1.2 MEMBER F7 2b. member_of group, e.g. tree = member_of(forest) has_member subgroup_of a "member" which is itself a group has_subgroup F8 2e. xmember_of group with members as exclusive components. has_xmember e.g. {{has_xmember(gang): gang member}} this means that a member of a gang MUST be a gang member. This is a necessary AND sufficient condition. P2.1.3 Constituent Material F9 4. consists_of composed of (a material). For chemical composition. Used when one or more material is essentially the exclusive component. e.g. {{consitutes(air)}} atmosphere. {{constitutes(steam + water)}} geyser. also, more abstractly: {{constitutes(money)}} capital. constitutes It is important that this relation be recognized as not implying direct inheritance of all properties of the consitutent. For example, {{constitutes(water): ice}}. But ice has different properties than water. This relation will in some cases be very similar to has_subtype, e.g. {{has_subtype(security)}} {{constitutes(money, R800)}} deposit, earnest, handsel, caution. Is a deposit a type of money, or is money the primary constituent? In this case we opt for constituent, but subtype would not be necessarily incorrect!. F10 2c. component_of used with percentages, or when percentages are not known, or are variable. If more than 1, use "+" to signify multiple components. If a component is at least several percent, and is important, we use "major_component". For manufactured items and prepared foods, this specifically means an added component. For raw or processed natural materials, the component need not be added. For polymers, this also means "monomer_of". For chemicals, combining compounds are also listed as "components" although they have lost some atoms in condensation. Perhaps specialized relations would be better for the chemistry relations. has_component F11 2j. major_component_of used when percentages are not specified, to distinguish a significant component. Also, even if not a majority component, an essential component at least several percent of the total. has_major_component F12 2d. main_component_of used when percentages are not specified, to distinguish the primary component, when this is generally known. Default would be >50% main component, and usually >80%. has_main_component e.g. {{has_main_component(steel)}} iron. likewise, copper alloys, brass and bronze. P2.1.4 SUBPROCESS F60 13. process_in acts on, causes a change in, performs a function in; (Note: state in, step in, stage in from the UMLS relation is broken out into 13a.) This may be broadly used to indicate any activity which is part of a composite activity. (alternate form) process_of from UMLS, especially processes in living things has_process F46 18. occurs_in sub activity which is not a method(for which, see 22b) (is this different from "has_process"?) has_subactivity <-- "mechanism" has some causal component, and is also "conceptually related". The best location is uncertain. It is here because a mechanism is a type of process. --> has_mechanism this is analogous to "has_method", but is for non-purposive processes, such as physical processes, to indicate some detail of how a causal effect is mediated. This can be used where one wishes to indicate the eventual result of a causal chain, as well as its intermediate steps. mechanism_of P2.2 Spatial relations: Place and locations [[location]] P2.2.1 STATIC SPATIAL RELATION (locations of objects) F14 3. location_of use this for location in, not relative location. for objects, not activities. has_location (adjacent, in front, etc) Location of physical objects only: location of activities is 3a. e.g. {{location_of(farm): farmhouse}} The "frequency" attribute of this relation and of "performed_at", (3a) is inherantly asymmetric: a place will typically have many activities, although an activity may be performed usually or exclusively at one place. F17 3c. rel_loc_of for relative locations, usually for a description of the internal structure of a physical object. The relative location may take the form of a locative word (above, below, alongside, front, back) plus "loc=" followed by an object or location, in square brackets, e.g.: {{rel_loc_of(below[loc=ground surface, @R342])}} underground, below ground. has_rel_loc "top" and "bottom" are intended to mean those usually understood positions when an object is used as intended in a gravitational field. Most objects (except spheres) have a well-defined top and bottom . This must be included in the definitions of those words, and of this relation. F18 3e. has_orientation for structural descriptions, especially of vertical or horizontal parts. When used with three curly brackets, this describes a relative orientation, and a "+" sign must be used. orientation_of e.g. under solid body: {{has_orientation(top face/bottom face): horizontal}}. {{has_orientation(front face/back face/left face/right face): vertical; inclined}}. {{{has_orientation(top face + bottom face): parallel}}}. F20 5. adjacent_to distinguish also direction, e.g. a pawn is (symm) in front of a (king, knight, bishop etc) at the start of a chess game. Needs conditions? Note that the symmetry does not imply a *necessary* property for the opposite direction, i.e. {{adjacent_to(shipyard): waterway}}, *but* {{&adjacent_to(waterway): shipyard}} F21 5a. near_to includes adjacent, but not necessarily (symmetrical) F22 6. connected_to attached to, not just touching. (symm) F23 7. interconnects takes two arguments. A ternary relation, so we use three brackets and a plus sign: {{{interconnects(a): b + c )}}} interconnected_by {{{interconnected_by(b + c): a}}} F24 7a. between takes two arguments, as above {{{between(a): (b) + (c)}}} has_in_middle {{{has_in_middle(b + c): a}}} have_between F25 8. surrounds for complete or almost complete encirclement. surrounded_by F26 9. contains is a receptacle for a substance, or a vehicle to convey something, e.g. {{contained_in(electric power)}} live circuit, live rail, live wire. {{contained_in(potted plant)}} pot. Thus, the "container" does not have to be closed. contained_in acontains an abstract "contains" used for things that "contain" energy, electricity, etc. This is used for cases when it is said that something is "stored" in a device, chemical, etc. acontained_in F27 10. traverses crosses over, extends across, crosses through is_traversed_by P2.2.2 LOCATIONS OF ACTIVITIES F15 3a. performed_at subtype of has_location, for activities. For human actitivites, it may have some of the character of "has_purpose". where activities are typically performed. e.g. {{performed_at(teaching)}} school. The "location" may be a place or an institution. The "location" may be a "market" which can be dispersed in space. performed_on more specific as to location performed_in " " has_activity inverse of performed_at sold_at specialization of performed_at, equivalent to and shorthand for: {{performed_at(sell[obj=x])}} selling_place_for F16 3d. works_at place of work for a worker has_worker point to occupation title F19 3b. has_habitat typical natural habitat for a natural object, usually living things; dwelling place. habitat_of F59 14d. origin_of where did it come from? this is somewhat similar has_origin to "derived_from" (#14a) but here is restricted to mean original location, native-land; e.g. camels are from arabia, starlings come from England, horses from Europe. This might preferably be in an extended definition, but is so closely related to the other "source" concepts that it is included as a primitive relation. In some cases this will suggest a typical location, as a fez is usually worn in eastern Mediterranean countries. There may be more than one origin, as with animals, e.g. {{has_subtype(wild ox)}} {{origin_of(India/Southeast Asia)}} gaur. P2.3 TEMPORALLY RELATED: [[time]] F28 11. precedes abstract succession, used mostly for time succesion, but in some abstract cases, does not imply time, as in metaphorical uses {{precedes(front end): back end}}. (not necessarily immediate succession, but it is a transitive relation) e.g.(time): Monday, Tuesday (?) also sequential actions follows F29 12. co-occurs_with (symm) F30 23a. temporal_part_of for times or activities with distinguishable temporal parts. has_temporal_part F61 (= st of temporal part) 13a. state_in state in, step in, stage in [not biological] Rather than a process, this "stage" is intended as an event (with a defined time frame). {{has_state(lawsuit)}} trial. has_state [see 24 developmental form for biological] Note: state and stage are different concepts, these relations should be separated F31 23f. has_temporal_loc time of occurrence. Analogous to "location_of" for spatial location temporal_loc_of F32 44. has_commencement point to verbs: begin to x commencement_of point to verb nominalization. F33 44a. has_beginning for nouns e.g. {{has_beginning(day): morning}} beginning_of One unresolved problem is how much else is implied by this relation. If it is a necessary beginning, it should also be a requirement, and the main action should follow obligatorily. But until that is resolved, sometimes several relations are included for clarity, e.g. {{has_beginning(holding in the hand)}} {{result_of(holding in the hand)}} {{follows(holding[2])}} {{requires(holding[2])}} grasping. F34 44b. has_ending for nouns ending_of F35 44c. has_termination for verbs or nominalized verbs. termination_of verb or nominalized verb. P2.4 CAUSALLY OR FUNCTIONALLY RELATED: [[cause]] (except for location where activities are perfomed, see location) F36 15. causes sine qua non. Result may be state, object, action. caused_by F37 has_consequence similar to caused_by, but used for properties, where a natural association, rather than "causation" (by action) is the actual meaning. We can say "because", but not because of an action. consequence_of e.g. {{&consequence_of(unimportance): inutility, R645}}. Where there is an ambiguity, the consequence may be made more specific: has_consequence_o the consequence for the object(patient) of an action (This is ambiguous between direct and indirect object in some cases, but should be able to be resolved by the type of the object. has_consequence_s the consequence for the subject(agent) of an action F38 entails implies. somewhat similar to has_consequence Usually for verbs or nominalized verbs, points to another action logically implied by the concept This is stronger than causes, in that the concept entailed is a necessary accompaniment of the entailing concept. e.g.: {{entails(preservation): persistence}} (if something is preserved, it must also persist) entailed_by F39 15a. mcauses motivation, or causation in the mental realm, e.g. Although physical causes must precede their effects, a mental cause may come after its effect, if it is a goal mcaused_by {{mcause_of(reasoning processes, M5.4)}} belief to distinguish the process from the result. for motives, or other mental reasons. (See also 19b has_expression, a more specific subtype}} Used loosely, e.g. {{mcauses(fatigue): seek[obj=refreshment]}}. i.e. fatigue causes an agent to seek refreshment This is related to has_purpose, when used in relation to human actions. the combination of relations {{has_purpose}} and {{&causes}} means that an action has a certain purpose and sometimes succeeds F40 <-- has_result is more specific type of "causes" --> 21. result_of usually points to an action. The result may be of several types. e.g the result of learning (R539) may be knowledge or skill, but may also be a scholar or an expert. This "result" will not be creation of a physical object, which is treated in section P2.4.1, below. But changes in the character of an object may be included here. has_result usually a state or an event. also, result may be an object with certain new characteristics. e.g. giving transforms an object into a gift, so: {{has_result(giving)}} gift. F158 49. causative_agent_of point to disease, for disease-producing organisms. has_causative_agent etiologic agent, pathogen. F159 51. has_legal_effect the result of a legal action, may be a state or an action. legal_effect_of e.g. {{has_legal_effect(annulment)}} never married, unmarried. P2.4.1 EFFECT/PARTIAL CAUSE F41 16. affects catalyses, inhibits (physical effect) affected_by depends upon, influenced by. physical and mental (should subdivide into (a) alter, influence, modify; (b) regulate, meter. e.g. oxygen permits combustion, combustion requires oxygen (essential condition); adequate water depth permits a boat to float& move). Unlike the distinction between mental and physical causes, this relation is used for both. More specific affects are below. F45 16a. factor_in important factor, for non-physical effects (as in 16). e.g. under R124(oldness) {{factor_in}} primogeniture. has_factor [in some cases, the notation {{&causes}} and {{factor_in}} are essentially identical]. F42 changed_by more specific form of "affected_by" {{changed_by(sequence): permutation}} changes helps more specific than "affects", but for qualitative effects not properly characterized by "increased_by" helped_by hurts similar to "helps", with negative effects hurt_by This concept will in some cases be similar to causes: {{hurts: x}} {{causes: damage[to=x]}} F43 16b. increased_by subtype of affected_by increases The "thing" that increases something else will generally be an action e.g {{increases(temperature increase): vapor pressure}}. <-- Subtype of "affects", opposite of cause PREVENTION --> F47 64. prevents condition or object preventing an action or process; blocking an action prevented_by e.g. {{prevented_by(vision, M6.1.2.7.3.1)}} invisibility. {{prevented_by(harm, M7.1.2.1.2.2.2)}} precaution, watchfulness. F48 16c. decreased_by subtype of affected_by; reduced by. decreases F49.inhibited_by for enzyme inhibitors and similar. also for inhibition of human action inhibits This relation is similar to saying that something makes and action difficult, e.g. We have relations: {{causes(barrier): difficulty[of=action, R680], R704}}. {{inhibits(barrier): action, R680}}. These are closely related, but we would not say that an "inhibitor" makes an enzymatic reaction difficult, it actually makes it slow. So we may use both relations in some cases. [[need]] P2.4.1.1 REQUIREMENT F62 22a. needs physical object or phenomenon required for some physical phenomenon or activity (other than manipulative activity, as in 22); e.g. {{needed_for(gravitation)}} hydroelectric power. Closely related to caused_by. needed_for As an example of the relation between this and "has_requirement": Under "hearing" {{needs: audible sound, @P2.6.1.4}}. {{has_requirement}} {{has_property(audible sound, @P2.6.1.4)}} audibility. F63 52a. has_precondition for verbs or nominalized verbs, related to but more specific than entailment in that the precondition is implied in the action. The "precondition" should be a state or property. precondition_of similar to "required_for" F64 22c. required_for point to enabled action or function has_requirement ability or capacity (human or machine) to perform the action. OR, an action which is a prerequisite for another action. <-- not directly instrumental, see 22 --> For the lexical function expressing the "-able" or "-ible" property, we specifically use the "requires" inverse: requires used to generate the "able" or "-ible" forms from verbs: {{requires(move)}} movable. This specific inverse may also be considered as a lexical relation, i.e., a relation which generates one morphological form from another. The other "requirement" relations do not necessarily imply that the lexical forms will be morphologically related. The "-able" forms can usually be generated by a morphological analyser or generator, and are ony used when (1) the relation is not obvious, or (2) the "able" forms need to be included because they are used in other relations, or even just for completeness.. F65 22d. required_for_subj point to enabled action or function has_subj_requirement ability or capacity (human or machine) to perform the action. <-- not directly instrumental, see 22 --> F66 22e. required_for_obj point to enabled action or function has_obj_requirement ability or capacity (human or machine) to be susceptible to the action <-- not directly instrumental, see 22 --> <-- see also uses_up --> F67 22g. susceptible_to point to an action to which the object or human is susceptible (e.g. {{susceptible_to(dupe): deception}} differs from 22c above in not being a requirement. facilitated_on points to an object with a particular character. <-- it would be more perspicuous to use "facilitated by" and point to a trait, but we need conformity to the inverse relation --> facilitates point to an action facilitated by a trait or property facilitated_by point to a property or action facilitating an action. predisposes_to subtype of facilitates, for human traits or emotions, similar to "&mcauses", for actions, F68 <-- internal facilitation --> mfacilitates point to a human action made more likely by a human trait. mfacilitated_by point to a trait which facilitates some human action by the person possessing that trait P2.4.2 PRODUCTION, GENERATION <-- Also, see "result_of, above, and "has_requirement", below. --> F94 17f. hcreates (mostly for human roles, people who make things, or cause them to become existent. Also, for direct parents of living things (even non-human). This includes paternity. Also used for companies, and animals who make things (of non-substance type. "produces" is for substances) Note that this is the primary creator, the one usually attributed with creation (or manufacture). An assistant in the process is under 17g, assistant. Also used for abstract things created, such as rights. Originally, This included "procreate", i.e. biological reproduction, which is recognized by the living object of "creation" (correction: procreation is now "begets" see next entry. created_by F95 17j. begets biological parentage, procreation begotten_by F50 14. produces (from UMLS) [I] yields, secretes, generates, emits; BUT notice that what is produced by a biological process may also be produced by non-biological processes, so this is not to be interpreted as the only method of production. Also, if the "product" is a type with subtypes, not all subtypes are necessarily produced by the process, unless a "!" is used as modifier. Best interpretation is "may be produced by" produced_by (We restrict this to biological products, of substance type, as oils, fats, fibers; or special structures, such as spores. The producer may be an organism or a specific substructure of the organism) see subtypes: forms, emits, generates, product_of {{produces(honeybee)}} honey. codes_for specialized to molecular genetics. Point to RNA or protein coded by DNA or RNA coded_by F51 21b. formed_by point to an action or process which results in a physical object with particular characteristics. (for manufacturing, use "has_product"). The physical object has acquired certain characteristics from the process. Exclude biological products, which are under "produces" eg.g under "physical solid" {{formed_by: @P2.6.1.3.8, crystallization, precipitation, crystal growth; gelling, gelation, thickening; concretion, coagulation}}. Also used for structures created by non-human living things, e.g. {{forms(termite colony)}} termite mound. {{forms(spider)}} spider web. forms aformed_by same as formed_by, but for abstract objects, including mental objects aforms F52 14e. generates produces, yields (mostly physical or chemical processes which are not specificaly industrial) e.g. {{generates(vaporization): gas}}. Also physical objects which produce things. Also, abstract production, such as: {{generates(investment)}} return on investment. for the second sense, see also "aforms" generated_by F53 14c. emits light, radiation; power, electricity (of batteries); effluents, discharges (smoke). Also sounds from inanimate or animate objs. Note that this means that the object can emit, but does not necessarily always emit (e.g. when turned off). emitted_by point to the source of the thing emitted F54 14a. has_product mostly for manufacturing processes, broadly. e.g. {{product_of(copy)}} copying, duplication. product_of P2.4.2.1 CONVERSION <-- note that "processed_into" can be a process as simple as gathering or picking, as for fruit. The "process' means that something is converted for human use. Usually, but not alway, some kind of chemical transformation is involved. Perhaps a separate relation should hold when, as in picking fruit, no chemical or complex physical manipulation is required. Perhaps "obtained_from"???! --> F55 14b. derived_from [RW=1.0][I] extracted from, distilled into, generally but not only industrial processes. Also hides, e.g. leather derived_from: cow; food from food animals. {{&derived_from(fruit): fruit tree}}. processed_into inverse; there can be many derivatives of a starting material (similar to produces). Therefore this relation must be interpreted as "sometimes" processed into, even when no "&" modifier is present. e.g. {{processed_into(tree): lumber}}. This is also used for other processes, when no other relation seems apt; e.g.: {{derived_from(document)}} blank document, blank, blank sheet. {{processed_into(dough)}} bread. For some materials, both "processed_into" and "consists_of" seems appropriate: {{has_part(elephant)}} tusk. {{consists_of(tusk)}} {{processed_into(tusk)}} ivory. Note: For the method used in processes, as a temporary measure until a more integrated notation is developed, we use the "used_in" relation, with the name of the process and the word"processing" as arguments, e.g.: {{used_in(baking): processing[obj=dough][product=bread]}} to express "baking" is used to process dough into bread". As with other modifiers on arguments, the interpretation of the modifiers to "processing" in this example must be interpreted by the "processing" attached procedures. F56 14b2 convertible_into for fungible items? MOney into wealth, cash-like instruments? Needed? Similar to processed_into, but more abstract, and symmetric. If our logic concludes that something is convertible into itself, that's OK. Money is convertible into money. F57 14f. evolved_from can be used for gradual processes, including mental or physical evolved_into F58 14g. transformed_into natural process of transformation transformed_from F151 = st of 14g. 20a. metabolite_of for natural biochemical pathways has_metabolite F150 20. derivative of [I] chemicals only; includes analog, not metabolite has_derivative (can it be symmetric for analogs??) P2.4.3 DESTRUCTION F89 22f. uses_up an item consumed by a machine or other physical object in performing its function; the item may be totally used up, or converted into something else. Similar to 21a (consumes), but for objects. {{uses_up(weapon)}} ammunition. {{uses_up(hearth fire): fireplace fuel}}. use_up_by the device using the expendable item. F90 21a. consumes similar to 22f, but for actions point to physical object changed by the action: e.g. {{consumes(eating)}} food. consumed_by point to an action P2.4.4 MANIFESTATION F69 19a. manifestation_of observable, gives evidence of underlying process has_manifestation (symptom will be a separate category for Hithes) [broadly used for physical and mental, e.g.: {{manifestation_of(choice): @R600, discretion, volition}}]]. F80 evidence_of for cases where topic_of, manifestation_of, exhibits, expression_of, representation are not apropriate has_evidence may point to a document which is evidence of a right or event, such as a deed or testimony. F74 19b. expression_of activity characteristic of a human trait. has_expression point to action or result This implies {{mcauses}}, but is more specific lexpression_of for linguistic expression of ideas, emotions has_lexpression we also use "has_symbol" in some cases; these two need to be more precisely differentiated. F75 19c. symptom_of (restrict this to disease) has_symptom F76 19d. mach_symptom_of evidence of mechanical malfunction has_mach_symptom F77 3b. exhibits points to activity which is characteristic of a physical entity, usually a behavior of a living thing (in UMLS, behavior of animals). (slightly different usage from UMLS, here: plants also have behavior. Internal biological functions are related as "has_process", #13). For physical actions of non-living things, use "has_action" for humans, this may be appropriate with feelings; "hperforms" will usually be the proper relation for actions. exhibited_by F78 23c. has_action salient action of physical object, or some "verbal" action of abstract object. (other than function, which is primarily for for the purpose of an artifact) {{has_action(liquid): flow, stream}}. {{has_action(soft object)}} bending, yielding. Also used in certain cases where some abstract object is the subject of a verb, e.g. under "vindicate": {{has_action(excuse)}} justify, warrant, be an excuse for, be a justification for, be a good reason for; lend a color, furnish a handle. the "action" may even be stative. The use in abstract situations is to allow comprehension of phrases where certain abstract objects are the subject of verbs, e.g. {{has_action(surroundings)}} surround. paction_of physical object object with this behavior as a salient characteristic. Primarily used with verbs as first argument. action_of for more abstract actions, as: {{action_of(preceding)}} precursor. i.e., a precursor "precedes" something else. At the early stages of building this semantic network, these "actions", i.e. verbs associated with objects, will be the most salient associated verbs. At a later stage, when a more comprehensive list of collocations is developed, the collocations will not necessarily be indicated by semantic relations such as these listed here, but will comprise a separate part of the lexical entry for each word. F73 46. has_execution used to distinguish an abstract process or activity from the word used to describe its actual implementation. example: a "play" is an abstract process, and the "execution" is called a performance. execution_of P2.5 INSTRUMENTAL FUNCTIONS; USAGE <-- (Goal-oriented relations) instrumental functions are a subtype of causal functions, and are closely intertwined in forming complex concepts. For example, under "engraving" P2.3.1.3.6.6: {{forms(engraving)}} plate. {{has_subtype(plate)}} steelplate, copperplate; woodblock. {{used_in(plate): printing,@R554}}. {{forms(printing)}} impression, print, engraving. Notice that the activity of printing has its primary location elsewhere. But the final print and the physical object used to make it are in thhe same main entry. The causal relations of one physical object to another are generally through actions, and there is not usually a single direct relation. --> P2.5.1 FUNCTIONS <-- function_of is for artifacts which passively perform a function, other than tools which require active manipulation by humans while the function is being performed. Corresponding relations for actions are purpose_of and has_method. Both relations express a means to a goal. "function_of" is similar to, but more specific than, "uses", 22, F77. --> F83 17b. has_function function or purpose of an artifact (other than powered machines). Includes chemicals, drugs. The function may be a verb or nominalized verb. Every "function" specified by this relation is an implied subtype of "process". function_of artifact with that function. e.g. a stool has the function "support". F81 17. carries_out executes a function, performs an activity carried_out_by (other than humans, other than measures) e.g. powered machinery. This is similar to has_function, but is used for machines which have internal motive sources, and may be thought of as performing the function "by themselves". F82 17a. measures machine, instrument, or method to measured_by measure a value, e.g. {{measured_by(depth)}} sounding; sound, sounding line. This can also be used for visualisation which is not quantitative, e.g. {{measured_by(microscopic object): microscope}} Note that this relation could be expressed as a function, and is therefore not necessary: {{measure(ruler): length}} is equal to; {{has_function(ruler): measure[obj=length]}}. This relation is a convenience to avoid potentially long chains of nested parentheses in the function relation. F84 17i. has_biofunction biological function of parts of living things. biofunction_of P2.5.2 USE <-- note that "uses" has two inverses, depending on the semantic character of the usage. "function_of" is a more specific subtype of "uses" --> F85 22. uses tools, instruments, devices needing active manipulation during function. Also, chemicals for which the function is not a purpose of manufacture. Also, structures used as passive support, e.g. roads for travel. Also, methods, where "has_method" is not correct. For methods 22b. We count body parts,like the hand as a "tool" for this relation. First argument may be person or activity. used_in point to activity, or some desired effect. used_by point to person, where a tool or method is typically used by a certain type of person used_at typical location of use of an object use_loc_of point to object used at that location e.g. under "propulsion", (verbs) we have: {{used_in(hand)}} throw, fling, cast, pitch, chuck, toss, jerk, heave, shy, hurl. <-- see also may_wear (clothing), #58 --> F86 22h. used_as a use for a natural product used by people, which is not its natural function use_for {{has_subtype(protease)}} {{use_for(tenderizer)}} pepsin. F88 22i. has_purpose for laws, procedures, regulations, plans, human actions in general when "has_method" is not appropriate. Point to a goal. purpose_of point to a law, regulation, activity, etc. may be inistinguishable from has_method P2.5.3 Method F87 22b. method_for a method as a means to achieve a goal. The goal to be achieved is the first argument. Also, for verbs expressing methods, this relation points to a sub-method. very similar to has_purpose. By default, any "method" will *not* be an exclusive method. has_method goal achieved by such means e.g. {{has_method(goal, R620)}} method, way, manner. *very* similar to purpose_of, but used for procedures. [has_method, when used with actions as a first argument, may be indistinguishable from has_subtype. In such cases the main criterion for choosing one or the other will be whether we want to inherit characteristics from the parent type.] e.g. under "get," "earn" and "win" might be considered subtypes, but are classified as methods to get. {{has_method(get)}} {{mode_of(by working, @M7.3.5.4.1)}} {{conceptual_part_of(deserve, @R924)}} earn. {{has_method(get)}} {{&has_result(contest, R720/lottery, @R156)}} win. {{&has_method(criticism): @R856, satire, ridicule}}. Note: has_method may extend several layers; a "method" may include several sub-methods, and the layering of methods will have no arbitrary limit on depth. Thus this appears to be a transitive relation, but a method3 of a method2 of a method1 may only accomplish method2, and not method1. <-- [[human]] --> P2.6 HUMAN ROLES [see also works_at] F93 50. participant_in a subtype of hperforms, above, but used for cases where the activity is performed by more than one person, and the individual has a specific label. The action may not be directly "caused" by the participant. The "activity" may be a state, such as marriage. The use of this relation implies that there is more than one agent involved has_participant usually a person e.g. {{has_participant(wedding)}} bride; groom; officiator. {{has_participant(marriage, R903, M8.3.1.1.15)}} married person[num=2]; spouse. F91 17c. hperforms (mostly for human roles except occupations) performs an activity. In some cases,the activity may also be performed by animals, but animal behavior should be typically under "exhibits". [!domain=agent, R690] [!range=action,R680] This can be broadly used for any agent, including non-human animals, mythical creatures, and God. performed_by point to a human role other than an occupation, (for occupation, see sub-relation 17d, job_of). This is a specialization of "has_participant", the general term for an actor. F92 17k. studied_by point to human type who studies a field. similar to job_of, without the implication of being paid (as with academic disciplines). hstudies point to field of study See also hcreates and begets, under "production" F96 17g. assists_with broadly, someone or some organization who assists with the creation of something, or with execution of a process. This is distinguished from the prime mover, who "creates" something, or "directs, presides" over a process. assisted_by F97 partner_of similar to assists_with, but for situations where two people participate in an activity, and the participants are referred to by specific names. has_partner F98 17d. has_job activity of person with that occupational title. (eg plumbing is performed_by a plumber scientific investigation by a scientist job_of point to an occupation title. <-- see state_of at F111 --> administers for authorities with specific jurisdictions administered_by point to authority name F99 17e. sells merchants and their wares; also for establishments, companies, stores. sold_by F100 17h. has_trait point to a character trait possessed by that person trait_of point to a person or numan group with that character trait. possesses for abstract possession of rights, duties, information This is a supertype of "owns" possessed_by F101 62. owned_by subtype of "possesses," for ownership of property. point to a person, legal person, organization, or subtype type of one of those. e.g. {{owned_by(wealth)}} rich man, wealthy person owns the thing owned may be a physical object or a sellable right. F102 55. has_agent point to a role which is used as an agent or advocate for a person agent_of person who uses that agent {{has_agent(advertiser)}} advertising agency. P2.7 CONCEPTUALLY RELATED: F103 has_relation used to specify the names of relations between objects. This signifies that the "relation" word specified will often be followed by the word "of" which will mark a special concept, often unique, which is in the "relation" specified by the relation word. relation_between The "directed relation" a R9 will often be a named supertype of the relation name specified by this relation F104 23. conceptual_part_of This is frequently used for case-relations, for verbs or nouns. Sometimes used as a temporary marker, until a more specific relation can be specified. In general, it is used where part_of is inappropriate, since that relation implies an easily recognizable part distinguishable and sometimes separarable from other parts. Conceptual_part should not be separable, and may be difficult to disentangle or distinguish from other parts (state, step, stage are under functional relations) other than temporal part. has_conceptual_part Sometimes it seems difficult to distinguish between subtype and conceptual part, as in (under "activity", R682): {{has_conceptual_part(fast, @R274)}} quick, prompt, yare[obs3], instant, ready, alert, spry, sharp, smart. This suggests that "conceptual_part" can form a continuum in importance, until the part may become the predominant underlying concept. F105 9. {{has_case}} when a certain filler for a case (of a verb or nominalized verb) is implied: e.g. journey. {{case_of(destination[val=holy place])}} pilgrimage, hajj. {{case_of}} this less specific than some other types of relations, and similar to {{has_conceptual_part}}, but implies that the case-filler is so strongly associated with the concept, that it must be considered as an integral part of the concept. This will affect the "strength" of the relation. This may be used for other than verbs or nominalized actions, but should be avoided there F114 23d. has_patient typical object of an action; point to a noun. This relation will probably be superseded by a more comprehensive list of verb-object-collocations when these are available. has_spatient sub-patient. For cases where a part of a physical object is the patient of an action, and we wish to specify both the whole object and the affected part. The implication is that there is only one patient, even though there may be both a "has_patient" and a "has_spatient" relation. patient_of point to an action (verb or nominalization) F106 has_marker similar to has_symbol, but used to point to words that are case markers for certain concepts, e.g. Prep. {{has_marker(reason)}} because of, due to, on account of, by reason of, for the sake of. in some cases, a context is indicated. marker_for F107 10. {{has_tobject}} a special case of case: this points to a typical object of a verb or nominalized verb. e.g. ||desire ||{{has_tobject}} desideratum. {{tobject_of}} F108 has_target for ditransitive verbs, point to the indirect object (oblique object), usually a person. for verbs of giving, telling. {{has_target(transmission)}} intended recipient. target_of Also used to specify a case for some other conceptual verbs with indirect objects that partake of "motion to" {{has_target(classification): category, R75}}. P2.7.1 TOPIC F79 19e. topic_of point to a document or other communication or agreement treating the subject {{topic_of(law)}} written law. This is a more specific subtype of has_patient, for communications. Also used for thoughts or feelings. This might also be expressed as "about, concerning". treats_subject point to subject treated. Answers the question "what's it about?" e.g. under danger {{topic_of: warning, R668; alarm, R669}}. and under "undertaking (an action): {{topic_of(undertaking): @R768, undertaking, engagement; compact &c. R769}}. see also meaning_of, above F120 27. assesses evaluates, estimates, appraises assessed_by (more general than measures, 17a.) e.g. {{assessed_by(quantity): measure}} F121 28. studies inquires into ... any field of study, ology. studied_in F122 29. issue_in point of discussion, dispute (UMLS) also, important concept in any matter has_concern F109 has_branch for subbranches of field of study branch_of P2.7.2 REPRESENTATION has_meaning for commununications, point to the meaning meaning_of F70 28a. representation_of a visual representation (two or three dimensional) of an object to assist understanding; a model. e.g. {{has_representation(solar system)}} orrery. has_representation. Also, used for textual representation, e.g. {{has_representation(subject matter): title}} F71 28b. symbol_of usually a formal symbol representing a concept. These may be graphic, linguistic, visual, or behavioral. Some informal symbols. has_symbol e.g. {{has_symbol(enzyme)}} {{has_subtype(suffix)}} "-ase". also: {{has_symbol(kingship)}} crown. also: {{has_symbol(mourning)}} widow's weeds. {{has_symbol(concept)}} word[1], phrase; description. F72 formula_of chemistry only, chemical formula: a type of symbol. has_formula P2.7.3 APPLICABILITY F110 57. applies_to domain of application or influence of a concept, such as a law (including physical and chemical laws) ruled_by rule applying in that domain {{ruled_by(geopolitical division, P2.3.1.1.6.4.1)}} government, legal authority. valid_during point to tie period during which concept is valid, or applies. For concpets, such as rentals, valid during a term. This may be a subtype of "co-occurs_with". e.g. {{co-occurs_with(validity[of=option], @R737)}} option period. period_for P2.7.4 PROPERTY <-- In order to keep the number of relations as small as possible, the "property" relation is heavily used, since it may be used to describe any physical property, and is used in place of more specific relations. Instead of, for example, defining a relation "has_color($x)", we use "has_property(color[val=$X])". The primitive procedures fo the "property" relation itself is responsible for correctly interpreting the value described. --> F111 23b. has_property salient property, usually of a physical object. Almost any adjective can be a property. property_of object with this character as a salient character. The property may be a noun or an adjective. The objects are primarily nouns. For animals, property can include "dead", meaning that we are referring to a dead animal. (Therefore a person can have a "property" even if he is not alive!). e.g.: {{has_instance(scientist)}} {{property_of(dead + famous)}} Einstein. "death" is also a developmental stage, but as a characteristic of people, we usually use "has_property". state_of predominantly for humans who can be described as being in a specific condition or state. The "state" is that at R7b. has_state e.g. {{state_of(freedom): free man}} {{state_of(serfdom)}} serf. This can also be expressed as: {{has_subtype(condition[of=serf], @R7b): serfdom}} A special use of has_property is for tagging "roles", which are assigned the property "roleness". Attached to this "roleness" property may be the object to wwhich the role-word stands in the role-relation. {{has_property(father/mother/parent): roleness[to=child]}} {{has_property(foreign country): roleness[to=citizen]}} This can be glossed as saying: "anything with 'roleness' plays a role relative to another object" F113 23e. has_mode for verbs, a modifier specifying mode, to distinguish one variant of an action from another. e.g. : {{has_subtype(travel)}} {{mode_of(on foot)}} walk. Usually, the mode will be an adverb. also, used to derive adverbs from verbs. {{has_mode(encrypt)}} cryptographic. Also, to define certain adverbs, e.g.: {{has_mode(individual action)}} by oneself, individually, alone, singly, solo, on one's own, by one's lonesome[coll.]. mode_of. The same effect can be obtained by using a word-modifier, as in: {{has_subtype(walk[mode=stealthily])}} {{has_subtype(search)}} prowl. These two notations should be interpreted identically. The choice of which to use will depend on which is more easily interpreted by the human programmer. F118 26. has_units quantitative measure Note: machinery for measuring is defined by relation 17a. units_of (restrict this to units of measure) F119 26a. has_measure terms indicating measure, other than specific units e.g. {{has_measure(space): size}} {{has_measure(evidence): probability}}. Can be used to designate measuring systems: e.g {{has_measure(weight)}} avoirdupois weight; troy weight; apothecaries' weight. [range= a magnitude, at R25 (a number plus unit of measure)] measure_of has_cardinality for sets or groups of a specific number cardinality_of {{cardinality_of(four)}} set of four, grou of four. {{cardinality_of(two)}} duo; pair. P3 SIMILARITY F115 47. {{has_similarity}} points to adjective which means "similar to" {{similarity_to}} of adjectives, points to noun which is similar to word the adjective modifies. This is similar to a dictionary definition. {{has_similarity(tree)}} tree-like, arboreous, arborescent. F3. overlaps_with for cases where there are two classes, A and B, (symmetrical) and some members of one class are also members of the other class, but neither is a strict subtype of the other. Similar to "correlated_with", but for objects rather than actions. The "frequency" markers modifying the relation may be different in different directions. e.g.: {{-+overlaps_with(ascetic): hermit}}. "hermits are usually ascetics, but ascetics are only infrequently hermits". {{++overlaps_with(recipient)}} intended recipient. "intended recipients usually but not always get what is sent to them." F116 47. shaped_like to describe shape, form. It is understood that the shape may only approximate the idealized shape specified. shape_of F127 30f. resembles visually similar: differs from "shape_of" in (symmetrical) that shapes are generally geometric, whereas "resembles" compares two physical objects F128 30d. functionally_similar_to physical object with similar functions. Other similarities are likely, but not expressed. (symmetrical) F129 30e. analogous_to similarity over more complex concepts, such as frames. This is especially useful for analogy between physical and mental phenomena. P3.1 SYNONYMY (this should be broken down into degrees of synonymy: (almost) exact synonyms, close synonyms, and similar words. Perhaps add a "analogous" relation?) F123 30. synonym_of alternative to below, used to separate groups of synonyms with different usage characteristics. equivalent_to closely snonymous, almost identical. Normal (symm) usage of "synonymous" F124 30a. identical_to for meanings and referents, no difference at all, except in naming convention. However, names themselves can be asserted to be identical (symmetrical) the use of not_identical_to avoids the need to define "different_from", and means "different from" F125 30b. former_name_of for things with more recent names. newer_name_of this may not be the current name unless the database is consistently kept up-to-date. The latest known name will be the one with no "newer_name" pointer. F126 30c. similar_to large elements of similarity in concept, but (symmetrical) not enough for "equivalent_to". The synonym- groups after the first in the first paragraph of each main entry have an implied "similar_to" relation to the headword. F131 35. metaphor_of object to which this word bears non-literal reference has_metaphor non-literal reference to this word has_simile for phrases that are synonyms and similes, such as "blind as a bat" for "blind" simile_of This is not usually used where appropriate, since such similes are easily recognized and can be automatically labeled. F132 42. correlated_with numerical correlation - implies no commitment (symmetrical) as to causal relation. This must be kept as a relation of concepts, not an empirical observation. F130 34. not_related use this for homographs which are not conceptually (symmetrical) related, e.g. lead(element) - lead(verb) by default, the system would normally think that homographs are some way conceptually related. <-- 44 is grammatically asymmetric, for euphony. One direction points to a verb, the other to a noun (which is a nominalized verb) --> P4 CONTRAST F133 32. antonym_of Note observation of Miller in Wordnet that (symmetrical) antonymy may be more a function on individual words than on general concepts. F134 33. inverse_of operations which reverse an effect, esp. math. e.g. invert, right; cleave, weld; break, mend. Words that are not truly antonyms. This is also used for actions involving two agents or actants, where the action by one involves the inverse action by the other. e.g. giving and taking. F135 33a. alternative_to not a true antonym, but one of two or more alternate possibilities. e.g. {{alternative_to(color photo)}} black and white photo. The main implication is that the categories are exclusive. Usually, but not always, the two possibilities exhaust a category. complement_to similar to alternative, but for parts of objects or systems F136 33b. reciprocal_of reciprocal relations, as parent and child. also, with verbs: submit and be subject are reciprocals F137 33c. contrast_to not classical antonym, but in a sense opposite: e.g. {{contrast_to(evidence): assumption; hypothesis}} opposite_of for communications of opposite meaning P5 UNDEFINED: F138 31. undefined_relationship_to for unclear or unclassified relations (symm) From UMLS, but not used in FSN Note: UMLS has no antonyms ... inadvertant omission? ----------------------------------------------------------------------- P6 QUANTITATIVE RELATIONS <-- concepts connected by these relations have something of the flavor of the is_a/subtype relation. Thus a high intensity of some quality would seem to be a subtype of that quality. However, it could also be argued that a low intensity of some quality is a subtype, and we therefore cannot tell whether the high intensity is the subtype of the low intensity, or vice versa. Therefore it seems advisable to keep these relations as distinct from subtype. Note that we define several type of relations specifying degrees of qualities or properties. These terms are used vaguely and inconsistently, and perhaps some of them should be consolidated into a single term. After the first thesaurus reorganization, this question will be addressed. There may be only two degrees of some property, or more. This seems to depend on the concept being quantified. Note that as of version 0.51 of the FACTOTUM SemNet, these relations have been used inconsistently, and must be better distinguished, and usage made consistent. --> F141 38. is_high_intensity_of: this word means the same as "intense ()" has_high_intensity point to word which means "intense x, or high x" (e.g. high price=dearness). (primary usage for properties or characteristics) F142 39. is_low_intensity_of: this word means the same as "weak ()" has_low_intensity point to word which means "weak x, or low x" (e.g. low price=cheapness). (primary usage for properties or characteristics). Also used for mental phenomena, such as emotions. e.g. {{has_low_intensity(belief)}} intuition. F143 40. is_high_level_of (primary usage for activities, broad has_high_level interpretation: e.g. creativity(->genius)) Sometimes used for properties. Note: this is very similar to has_high_intensity, but because it seems to imply a good quality, "has_high_intensity" is usually used for negative qualities. Not yet used consistently that way. Also, for properties tha can be quantified, but for which "high quantitiy" is inappropriate F144 40a. is_low_level_of has_low_level has_null for "measures" which are inherently positive, to express the zero point. null-of F145 40c. is_large_quantity_of word is "a lot of x" (physical objs) has_large_quantity point to words which means "a lot of x" (e.g. forest is-large-quantity_of: tree) This can be used for mass and count attributes. e.g. of people, corpulence is_large_quantity_of: weight. Unlike has_high_level, a large quantity is a subtype of the headword. Thus "is_large_quantity_of" will point to a supertype. F146 40d. is_small_quantity_of word is "little of" has_small_quantity point to words which means "little x" F147 40e. is_extreme_of largest or smallest possible has_extreme F148 has_excess to express "over ...". This is for words which incorporate a value judgment. is_excess_of F139 36. is_high_quality_of: this word means the same as "a good ()" has_high_quality point to word which means "good x" F140 37. is_low_quality_of: this word means the same as "a bad(or poor) x" has_low_quality point to word which means "bad(or poor) x" F149 41. has_superlative superlative degree of head-word (grammatical) e.g. highest, best, least, next. is_superlative_of - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - F117 25. degree_of intensity of a quality has_degree e.g. {{has_degree(temperature)}} hot; warm, tepid, lukewarm. [ This function may also be served by the intensifiers, has_high_intensity, etc. ] P6.1 Numerical relations F160 56. has_relative_value numerical ratios, mostly for units of measure. The two units will be in parentheses separated by a plus sign, with the larger unit first. Also, the name for a relative value e.g. "density" sometimes simple comparative words, e.g. "greater" may be used. Also, for words defining ratios, e.g. This is a ternary relation, indicated by three braces. For sums and differences, see below. N. {[in_frame(motion)]} {{{has_relative_value(displacement, P2.4.2 + time of motion, P2.4.2)}}} {{has_subtype(rate of action, @P2.4)}} velocity, speed, rate of motion. Also used to indicate proportionality: {{{has_relative_value(weight + mass): proportional}}}. relative_value_of this would be the relationship attached to a number, and will rarely be used explicitly in the thesaurus. {{has_relative value(major decimal unit+minor decimal unit)}} "100". {{has_relative_value(direction^force + direction^counterforce): opposite}}. F161 59. has_sum similar to relative_value, represents a sum of the two arguments separated by plus signs sum_of F162 60. has_arith_product for products of quantities, to express mathematical relations arith_product_of F163 61. has_difference for subtractive procedures. minuend is first, subtrahend second argument. difference_of P7 SPECIALIZED RELATIONS (not elsewhere) F152 24. developmental_form_of Mostly biology. Includes early and terminal states like corpse, dead, embryo, egg (for biology) or wreck, detritus for inanimate. has_developmental_form {DEVELOPMENTAL_FORM_OF and the inverse are of the same type. The mature form should be marked as such, and the precedence relations should be marked with {{precedes}} }. has_species biological classification only species_of F153 48. has_genus biological classification only, where a common name applies to a genus. genus_of F154 48a. has_class similar to has_family. class_of F155 48b. has_phylum similar to has_family. phylum_of F156 48c. has_order similar to has_family. order_of F157 48d. has_family biological classification only, for cases where a common name applies to a family of organisms. e.g. a "deer" is any member of the family Cervidae. family_of F164 58. worn_on for clothing, jewelry may_wear bodypart II. CONTEXTUAL RELATIONS Some of the relations which indicate typical usage have the same double-curly-bracket format at predicate relations, but in most cases contextual relations are signified by a curly bracket followed by a square bracket, and closed in the inverse order. The format of the {[]} brackets is also somewhat different from the format of predicate relation. The relation is specified in the brackets, followed by the name of a context or activity within parentheses. If the first word of a contextual relation is other than the headword, the contextual relation will be preceded by a {{has_subtype(xxx)}} where xxx indicates the first word of the contextual relation. The word in paranthesis is not to be read as the first concept of a binary predicate! As with predicate relations, words outside the brackets have their primary location in that location of the hierarchy. Words following a colon within the brackets have their primary location elsewhere. Thus under the heading "cashier" we may find {[in_frame(shopping)]} {{has_subtype(payee)}} check-out clerk; check-out counter. {[in_frame(gambling)]} [casino employee who gives money in exchange for chips, and vice-versa] payor; cashier's window. Such relations will involve large numbers of subjects, and are generally more complicated than the predicate relations above. For example, to specify a contextual relation between two concepts neither of which is the headword, an initial parenthesis is used. Thus, in the section on interchange (R148), to indicate that money is the item substituted for the purchased item, we use: {{has_subtype(interchange): purchase, R795; sale, R796}}. {[(replacement)in_frame(purchase)]} price, purchase money, consideration, equivalent. a. FRAME OR FIELD OF STUDY <-- "frame"here is used in the sense of an artifiicial intelligence frame or script, which can be any complex activity, especially a human activity --> C1 1. in_frame the name of the concept when applied to the specified subject, frame, script frame_slot concepts associated with the topic or frame. This is related to conceptual_part_of, but applies to activities rather than objects or field of study. e.g. under heading "repose" {[in_frame(school/legislature)]} recess. C2 2. in_subject concepts when applied to a specific subject of study or specialized technical activity. Almost identical to in_frame b. GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT OR OBJECT RELATIONS C3 3. with_subject verbs expressing that concept when a specific type of object is the semantic subject. e.g. under violence, R174 {[with_subject(person)]} [shout or act in anger at something] explode, make a row, kick up a row; boil, boil over; fume, foam, come on like a lion. C4 4. with_object verbs with a specific implied object as the semantic object. e.g. under violence: {[with_object(person)]} excite, incite, annoy, urge, lash; convulse, infuriate, madden, lash into fury. e.g. under "separate" {[with_obj(skin[from=body]): skin &c. R226]}. Note that the interpretation of the "from" depends in the verb to provide the proper case frame. This relation should be (but is not yet consistently) used when the object of the verb is not implicit in the meaning of the verb, but is typically found as the object within the text. This the difference between impied objects and explicit objects can be illustrated: {{has_process(grow)}} {{has_subtype(add[ptnt=mass, P2.2.1.5])}} put on weight. {{has_process(grow)}} {{has_subtype(add)}} {[with_object(ptnt=mass, P2.2.1.5/weight, @P2.2.1.5)}} put on. in this case defining "put on" as a separate verb allows one to recognize structures such as "put on ten pounds" C5 5. with_action the converse relation, points to an action frequently associated with the object. This may be used where other semantic relations do not clearly apply. C6 6. of_object used for nominalized verbs, with implied of_obj objects, as with the "with_object", above. e.g. under "hate" {[of_object(person)]} misanthropy. also, for other relations where objects are implied, as with occupations: N. repair. {[of_object(shoe/leather)]} {{performed_by}} cobbler. C7 11. {[with_instr]} with instrument: point to an instrument used to accomplish an action ||sate ||{[with_instr(food)]} gorge, stuff. This could also be expressed as {{has_subtype(sate[with=food])}} gorge, stuff. c. ATTRIBUTE RELATIONS (use {[]} brackets) C8 5. when_modifying adjectival (attributive) concepts, when modifying specific nouns. e.g. under violence {[when_modifying(fire)]} roaring. C9 5a. of similar to when_modifying, but used for nouns when specifying attributes of other nouns. e.g. (under Nothing, #4a) {[of(person)]} no one, nobody, none, not a soul. NOTE: this is in many cases similar to a "subtype", i.e. when an attribute is applied to a particular subject, the words used may be considered as a subtype of the more general attribute, or as a contrextual use. The marks used here are not completely consistent in distinguishing these two uses. C10 7. from usualy with verbs of motion. e.g. under ejection: {[from(country)]} deportation. C11 8. while usually verbs, in a certain context, e.g. under "descend" {[while(moving)]} tumble, trip, stumble, titubate[obs3], lurch, pitch, swag; tilt, sprawl, plump down, come down a cropper. C12 9. when to describe circumstances when a relation holds. the word in this relation should be an adjective modifying an object in the relation modified C13 after similar to "when", but indicating that the relation holds after a certain event III. DEFINITIONAL RELATIONS These relations are in effect definitions not easily expressed by the other notations available. They also use the {[]} brackets, like the contextual relations. [[def]] C14 53. {[causing]} for adjectives whose meaning is that the word modified by the adjective causes an action, state, or nominalized action. These have no inverse, and should have their primary location at the location of the thing caused. e.g. {[causing(emotion)]} moving. C15 54. def generalized definitional form, used primarily with verb gerundive+object pairs: {[def(containing[obj=calcium salt])]} calcified. C16 63. {[has_past_tense]} for morphological variants, esp irregular. participles are marked as [ppart] past_tense_of C17 For expressing the referent function of adjectives, if they cannot be better related by other relations, we use the "contextual relation: {[referring_to]} as in: {[referring_to(joint)]} arthro-. {[referring_to(intestine)]} intestinal, enteric. This bears the same meaning as the lexicographers' "of or referring to". It has the meaning "related to, in some unspecified way". In many cases, this will be similar or identical to the relation: {{has_property(intestine)}} intestinal. although in this case, it does not appear correct to call it a property. C18 65. has_attributive used to form adjectives from nouns. means the same as the phrase in dictionaries "of or related to . . ." [see also {[referring_to()]} ] attributive_of C19 {[act_causing(NF)]} points to a verb. argument is the nominalized form, usually an "event" labeled by the nominalized form, verb is the process resulting in that event. This is seldom used, and is usually for cases where the relation cannot be easily deduced by morphological analysis. C20 {[perform(NF)]} similar to above, but performative. {[perform(fencing)]} fence. IV. INSTANTIATION <-- in contrast to most of the above relations, which relate concepts, the instance relation actually asserts existence of something, and is qualitatively different from the other relations --> I1 43. has_instance a real-world example of a concept, usually the name of an object or group instance_of Usually, the instances are the names of specific people, places, or corporations. In almost all cases, the instances will be proper names. In some cases, the instances will be names of commercial products, which are not truly unique individuals, e.g. at Adhesive: {{has_instance(gummed paper)}} Post-it note. {{has_instance}} {{constitutes(plastic)}} Velcro. at Championship: {{has_instance(award)}} {{has_subtype(medal)}} Victoria Cross[Great Britain]; Iron Cross [Germany]; Congressional Medal of Honor[U.S.A.]; silver star; bronze star; Distinguished Service Cross, DSC[acron]. The criterion of what is an instance is: (1) It must be something which exists in the real world. (2) It cannot have subtypes. The cases of named commercial products, or awards, may require a different type of relation, but for now we leave them in a class with individuals. There will therefore be two concepts named "Victoria Cross": the "award" instantiation, an individual thing, and the physical representations of that concept, which are medals. This is confusing and must be changed.?? V. EXTENSION E1 45. has_extension used to indicate the extension of a concept in the real world. extension_of {{has_extension(morning star)}} Venus, the planet Venus. {{has_extension(evening star)}} Venus, the planet Venus. V. Meta Relations Meta-level relations, allow statements about assertions. [[meta]] A1. {{asserts}} Used when the relation between concepts requires that one of the concepts related is an assertion. For example, to say that transporting a liquid requires that the liquid transported be inside a container, we say: {{has_requirement(transport[obj=$liquid]): $a}}. &&{{asserts($a)}} {{contained_in($liquid): container}}. {{has_topic(contempt): $assertion)}}. &&{{asserts($assertion)}} {{has_property($person): value[val=low]}}. At this point, the assertions must be of the same form as a relation, and are therefore limited to the use of the predicate relations defined above. A2. {{believes}} the first argument is a person, and the second argument is a proposition or a philosophy. believed_by point to a person. A3. {{desires}} wants or advocates. The second argument may be an action, predicate, or assertion desired_by V.1 IMPLICATION. This "implies" is intended to mean the same as the usual logical implication. It may take the form of an implication between predicates, or between full assertions. I1. implies e.g. {{implies(delivered[ptnt=$object][to=$recipient]): received[ptnt=$object][by=$recipient]}}. would be interpreted, using "predicate" notation: Forall x: delivered(x) => received(x) =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-= Discussions: =-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=-=- In this section, we will further discuss the relations and the notation used with them. As one example of the complexity of real-life objects we present the frame used to define a screw (a small metal fastener): {{has_subtype(fastener)}} {{constitutes(metal)}} screw. {{has_part(screw)}} {{rel_loc_of(end)}} head; point. {{has_property(point): pointed}}. {{has_part(screw)}} {{shape_of(conical/cylindrical)}} root. {{has_part(root)}} {{rel_loc_of(surface)}} {{shape_of(coil)}} thread. {{has_property(thread): pitch}}. {{has_subtype(head)}} flat head; round head; oval head. {{has_subtype(head)}} slot head; philips head; star head. {{{has_relative_val(head^width + root^width): ">1.1"}}}. Note that to specify that the head is wider than the root, we need to resort to the "^" relational notation. And this is a simple object. (Moral: a picture is worth a thousand words). Notes on requirement: For certain cases, {{required_for}} and {{conceptual_part_of}} are very similar: for example, under premeditation: {{mcauses: @R511, prediction, forecast}}. {{required_for: @R626, plan, project}}. {{conceptual_part_of: intention &c. R620}}. Each of these relations might well have been used for the other cases. IMPLICIT RELATIONS. (not an exhaustive list) ---------------------- a PART of a physobj is a physobj a PART of a body part is a body part a CONCEPTUAL-PART of a physobj is not necessarily a physobj a GROUP of physobj is a physobj a WHOLE (part_of) physobj is a physobj a TRAIT is a property of a human being a MEMBER of a human group is a human being, and vice versa a JOB is held by a human being a CONTAINER is a physobj, so CONTAINER_FOR is a physobj, as well as the contents something which CONTAINS is typically a container, and typically has the function of containing. something PERFORMED_BY is performed by a human something CAUSED_BY comes after (in time) the thing causing it something MCAUSED_BY may come before the thing mcausing it, if the mental cause is a goal or an anticipated event, (teleological causation), but comes after the thing causing it if it is a mental reaction to an event or action CAUSATIVE_AGENT_OF is a microorganism PURPOSE_OF and HAS_METHOD point to actions for achieving a goal HAS_PURPOSE and METHOD_FOR point to goals, which may also be actions HAS_HIGH_LEVEL, HAS_HIGH_INTENSITY, HAS_LOW_LEVEL, HAS_LOW_INTENSITY are not strict subtypes of the origin, but share most of its properties, in greater or lesser degree. ----------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------- MATTERS LEFT UNRESOLVED ------------------------ PROBLEMS: ------------ Questions needing resolution: (1) is there any real distinction between: has_high_level has_high_intensity (also refer to ) has_high_quality has_high_quantity (2) is there any difference between: has_method -- method_for purpose_of -- has_purpose REFINEMENTS: ------------ Later refinements (subtypes, specializations) of certain semantic relations should be substituted for the original parent types. This has not yet been done systematically. e.g. (1) for has_requirement and requirement_for has_subj_requirement or has_obj_requirement