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ZÐòòaóóTexts€are€those€referred€to€in€Tables€3€and€4:€€(1)€Scholarly€article;€(2)€Airline€news;€(3)€Magazine€fiction;€(4)€ReligiousÐ ççª Ðdevotional;€(5)€Crime€editorial.ÌòòbóóHeuristic€category€labels€suggest€the€overall€character€of€word€meanings€in€a€category.€€Examination€of€words€andÐ ii¬ Ðsurrounding€phrases€refines€the€identity€of€the€subset€of€words€which€were€actually€found€in€the€text.TABLE B ÞÝ ƒ/1…#ÝÔ€&ô’Vôò&òÔÔ€ôë”ôô&ô’VÔÓ  ÓÝ  ÝÝ ƒGT¨ÝòòTable€Ú  Ú5Ú  Úóó.€€Ý  ÝE-Scores€for€five€texts€on€selected€conceptual€categoriesKKKKKKKð?KìQ¸…ë ÀK ×£p= $@KìQ¸…ë,ÀK®Gáz®@K@K\Âõ(\ÀKìQ¸…k&@K®GázÀKffffffò?K@K…ëQ¸…ÀK®Gáz”+ÀK)\Âõ¨=@Káz®Ga*ÀK@KR¸…ëQ@KÃõ(\ÂÀKÃõ(\Â@KR¸…ëQÀK@K®Gáz @KÍÌÌÌÌL)ÀK¸…ëQx3@K)\Âõ¨$ÀÍTABLE BKE"Thin Top/Bottom dxdSªSSƒSð?S@S@S@S@SSš™™™™™'@‚SHáz®GÑ¿‚S ×£p= ׿‚SÃõ(\ À‚S¤p= ×£ø¿‚SS®Gáz”#@‚S®GázÀ‚S®GázÀ‚S®GázÀ‚S¸…ëQ¸@‚SSáz®Gá@‚Sö(\ÂõÀ‚S…ëQ¸ù?‚SìQ¸…ëÀ‚S…ëQ¸ù¿‚SSÃõ(\ @‚S333333"@‚S ×£p= Ç¿‚SR¸…ëQÀ‚SìQ¸…ëý¿‚SS{®Gázä¿‚S{®Gáz"@‚S…ëQ¸Õ¿‚S)\Âõ(¼?‚S¤p= ×£ü¿‚SS @‚S×£p= ×"@‚S×£p= ×÷¿‚S×£p= ×÷¿‚S×£p= ×÷¿‚SSô¿‚S)\Âõ¨%@‚Sffffffî?‚SHáz®Gý¿‚S ×£p= ÷¿‚S S fffffæ!@‚S Ãõ(\ÂÀ‚S ¤p= ×##@‚S Âõ(\Ò¿‚S \Âõ(\ÿ¿‚S S ¸…ëQ¸ À‚S š™™™™™À‚S áz®Ga)@‚S @‚S …ëQ¸…@‚S S À‚S Ãõ(\ÂÕ¿‚S š™™™™™@‚S …ëQ¸@‚S q= ×£pÀ‚S S 333333 À‚S Ház®Gõ?‚S R¸…ëQÀ‚S š™™™™™@‚S 333333À‚S S Ãõ(\ÂÀ‚S š™™™™™ý¿‚S ¸…ëQ¸ú¿‚S Ãõ(\ @‚S Ãõ(\ÂÀ‚SS)\Âõ(À‚S®Gáz® À‚Sš™™™™™Ù¿‚SR¸…ëÑ#@‚S\Âõ(\÷¿‚SS= ×£p=À‚S= ×£p=À‚S= ×£p=À‚SìQ¸…ë$@‚S= ×£p=À‚SS)\Âõ(Ü?‚S¤p= ×£@‚S{®Gáz„¿‚S®Gáz&@‚S×£p= ×@‚SS\Âõ(\À‚Sffffffî?‚Sq= ×£p@‚SR¸…ëQ*@‚S®Gáz À‚SSÃõ(\Âý?‚SR¸…ëQ@‚Sáz®Gá@‚SÍÌÌÌÌÌ-@‚S{®Gáz¤¿‚SSáz®Gá@‚S®Gáz®ÿ¿‚S®Gáz®ÿ¿‚S@1@‚S{®Gázì?‚SSö(\ÂõÀ‚Sö(\ÂõÀ‚Sö(\Âõè¿‚Sö(\ÂõÀ‚S…ëQ¸@‚SSìQ¸…ë@‚S333333À‚S ×£p= ÷¿‚S\Âõ(\ó?‚S¤p= ×£ @‚SSq= ×£p À‚Sq= ×£p À‚S…ëQ¸@‚Sq= ×£p À‚SÂõ(\!@‚SSÂõ(\â¿‚Sö(\Âõ À‚Sö(\Âõü¿‚SR¸…ëQÀ‚S®Gáz.!@‚SSš™™™™™ À‚Sš™™™™™ À‚Sš™™™™™ À‚Sš™™™™™ À‚S…ëQ¸^0@‚SS®GázÀ‚S®GázÀ‚S®GázÀ‚S®GázÀ‚SìQ¸…ë0@‚SS¸…ëQ¸À‚S¸…ëQ¸À‚Sq= ×£p@‚S¸…ëQ¸À‚Sáz®GH@‚SSè€@S`}@S †@SÐu@S<’@SS/333333Ã?.@15ƒS/Ð?9@25ƒS/{®GázÄ?0@16ƒS.{®Gáz´?  @8ƒS/333333Ã?.@15ƒÍTABLE BSÝ ƒ%¤î!ÝÔ€&ô’Vôò&òÔÔ€ôë”ôô&ô’VÔÓ  ÓÝ  ÝÔ€'ô’Vôôôë”ÔÔ€'X¼ÃXô'ô’VÔÔ  ÔÑ  ÑÖ€)ÿÿÖÖ€!ÿÿÖÒè°ÒÒL°ÒÓB.èè@˜ð H  øP¨X° `"°œXBÓñ¢ñÔ‡'ò’UòX'X¼ÃÔñ¢ñòòQuality€&€Quantityóó€ò ò24ó ó:€245„265,€1990.Ð ° Ððð€1990€òòKluwer€Academic€Publishers.€€Printed€in€the€Netherlands.óóÐ uÅ Ðñ¢ñÔ#†'X¼ÃXò'ò’UI#Ôñ¢ñÌòòMethod€of€inquiry€paperóóÐ o ÐÌò òContextual€Content€Analysisó óòò1óóÐ ï? ÐÌÌDONALD€G.€MCTAVISH*€&€ELLEN€B.€PIRRO**Ì*òòDepartment€of€Sociology,€University€of€Minnesota,€Minneapolis,€MN,€USAóóÐ ” ä  Ð**òòDepartment€of€Political€Science,€Iowa€State€Univerisity,€Ames,€IA,€USAóóÐ } Í  ÐÌÓB.èè@˜ð H  øP¨X° `"èèXBÓÔ‡'ò’UòX'X¼ÃÔò òAbstract.ó ó€This€article€suggests€one€way€to€systematically€code€textual€data€for€research.€€The€approach€utilizes€computerÐ OŸ  Ðcontent€analysis€to€examine€patterns€of€emphasized€ideas€in€text€as€well€as€the€social€context€or€underlying€perspectiveÏreflected€in€the€text.€€A€conceptual€dictionary€is€used€to€organize€word€meanings.€€An€extensive€profile€of€word€meaningsÏis€used€to€characterize€and€discriminate€social€contexts.€€Social€contexts€are€analyzed€in€relation€to€four€reference€dimensionsÏ(traditional,€practical,€emotional€and€analytic)€which€are€used€in€the€social€science€literature.€€The€approach€is€illustrated€withÏfive€widely€varying€texts,€analyzed€with€selected€comparative€data.€€This€approach€has€been€useful€in€many€social€scienceÏinvestigations€to€systematically€score€open-ended€textual€information.€€Scores€can€be€incorporated€into€quantitative€analysisÏwith€other€data,€used€as€a€guide€to€qualitative€studies,€and€to€help€integrate€strengths€of€quantitative€and€qualitativeÏapproaches€to€research.€ÌÌò òAbbreviations:ó ó€C„scores€=€Contextual€Scores,€E„scores€=€Idea/Emphasis€Scores,€KWIC€=€Key„Word„In„Context,€MCCAÐ Ý- Ð=€Minnesota€Contextual€Content€AnalysisÌÔ#†'X¼ÃXò'ò’Uß#ÔÌÓB.èè@˜ð H  øP¨X° `"èèXBÓò òIntroductionó óÐ Lœ ÐÌÖ€ÿÿÖWords€are€a€basic€form€of€data€for€much€social€science€research€because€they€are€the€usual€medium€forÏsocial€exchange.€€For€many€purposes,€insight€into€meanings€can€be€obtained€by€examining€profiles€ofÏideas€and€contextual€information€contained€in€text.€€In€this€paper€we€address€one€approach€to€the€socialÏscience€research€problem€of€systematically€coding€textual€data.€€The€approach€makes€quantitativeÏdistinctions€between€texts€varying€in€both€the€pattern€of€emphasis€upon€different€sets€of€ideas€and€in€theÏcontext€or€social€perspective€from€which€these€ideas€are€addressed.€€Scores€are€used€to€describeÏcomparative€patterns€of€meaning€in€textual€data,€generate€traditional€statistical€analyses€with€other€non„¼ñ¢ñ¼¼¼ñ¢ñtextual€variables,€and€aid€in€organizing€and€focusing€further€qualitative€analysis.Ìà @ àBy€"text"€we€mean€a€transcript€of€naturally€occurring€verbal€material.€€Included€areÏconversations,€written€documents€such€as€diaries€or€organization€reports,€books,€written€or€tapedÏresponses€to€open-ended€questions,€media€recordings,€and€verbal€descriptions€of€observations.€ÏUltimately,€the€transcript€consists€of€a€computerized€file€of€conventional€words€and€sentences€for€oneÏor€more€cases.Ìà @ àMethodologies€for€directly,€systematically€and€efficiently€handling€textual€data€are€needed.€ÏTraditionally,€trained€coders€are€utilized€but€serious€validity,€reliability,€and€practical€problems€are€oftenÏencountered.€€Computer€approaches€(available€since€the€1960's)€permit€more€systematic€and€reliableÏcoding€of€themes€and€meanings€in€text€but€these€have€not€been€widely€adopted€in€social€scienceÏresearch.€Like€Markoff€et€al.€(1975),€we€take€the€view€that€content€analysis€must€be€integrated€withÐ ˜*è%,  Ðtraditional€methodology.€€The€approach€described€here€extends€computer€content€analysis,€making€itÏa€more€useful€and€complementary€research€tool€in€traditional€social€science€methodology.Ìà @ àContent€analysis€has€been€summarized€in€a€number€of€places€in€the€literature.òò2óó€€òòContextualóóÐ #Ò Ðcontent€analysis,€implemented€in€the€Minnesota€Contextual€Content€Analysis€(MCCA)€computerÏprogram,€builds€upon€computer€content€analysis€methodology€in€a€number€of€ways.òò3óóÐ õ ¤ ÐÌÌò òOverview€of€Contextual€Content€Analysisó óÐ ° _ ÐÌFirst,€òòallóó€words€in€one€or€more€texts€are€divided€into€a€large€number€of€idea€categories€(including€a€"notÐ ƒ2  Ðelsewhere€classified"€category),€guided€by€a€conceptual€"dictionary".€A€dictionary€groups€words€(or€inÏour€case,€word€meanings)€into€categories€thought€to€express€(singly€or€in€patterns)€ideas€important€toÏan€investigator.€Several€conceptual€dictionaries€have€been€used€in€computer-based€content€analysis,€eachÏorganized€around€somewhat€different€theoretical€perspectives.òò4óóÐ 'Ö  Ðà @ àThe€contextual-conceptual€dictionary€MCCA€uses€is€oriented€toward€more€frequently€used€wordsÏwhose€meanings€are€organized€into€a€large€number€of€categories.€€The€categories€are€of€general€socialÏscience€interest€and€are€mutually€exclusive€(Pirro€and€McTavish€1982).€€Words€with€multiple€meaningsÏare€disambiguated.€€Relative€emphasis€upon€each€category€in€the€text€is€then€normed€with€respect€to€aÏstandard€(i.e.,€the€expected€emphasis€on€these€categories,€accounting€for€expected€variability€in€the€useÏof€a€category€over€a€number€of€social€contexts),€a€process€described€later.€€This€vector€of€normed€scoresÏ(called€"emphasis"€scores€or€E-scores)€permits€an€investigator€to€examine€the€over„€and€under„emphasisÏon€idea€categories€relative€to€the€norm€of€expected€category€usage.€€Broader€concepts€and€themes€in€aÏtext€can€be€identified€from€scores€for€sets€of€related€categories.€€Quantitative€distinctions€between€textsÏcan€also€be€made€in€terms€of€the€overall€profile€of€emphasis€on€idea€categories.ÌÖ€ÒÖà @ àSecondly,€MCCA€incorporates€an€hypothesis€that€different€social€contexts€(social€groups,Ïinstitutions,€organizational€cultures,€or€other€socially€defined€situations)€can€be€identified€by€the€overallÏprofile€of€relative€emphasis€upon€idea€categories€utilized€in€communication€in€that€context.€€TheÏidea-emphasis€profile€appears€to€contain€important€information€for€distinguishing€and€characterizingÏsocial€contexts.Ìà @ àTo€aid€in€interpreting€contextual€information€in€these€profiles,€we€use€four€general€"marker"Ïcontexts€we€call€"traditional",€"practical",€"emotional",€and€"analytic".€€Each€marker€context€is€anÏexperimental,€empirically-derived€profile€of€relative€emphasis€on€each€idea€category,€whichÏcharacterizes€the€perspective€typical€of€a€general€social€or€institutional€context.€€As€a€set,€the€fourÏcontextual€markers€serve€as€dimensions€to€define€a€social€context€space.€€MCCA€computes€theseÏcontextual€scores€(called€C„scores).€€Texts€can€be€scored€and€differentiated€on€these€four€dimensions.€ÏDistinctions€can€be€made,€for€example,€between€a€more€"traditional"€concern€for€breach€of€norms€andÏappropriate€sanctions€in€a€religious€discussion,€and€a€more€"practical"€concern€for€failure€to€successfullyÏachieve€goals€and€consequences€in€a€business€discussion.€Similar€ideas€may€be€discussed€in€quiteÏdifferent€ways€in€different€social€contexts.€€These€scores€appear€to€be€important€parameters€of€socialÏcontexts.Ìà @ àThird,€the€approach€helps€link€strengths€of€qualitative€and€quantitative€social€science€research.€ÏFor€example,€an€investigator€can€realistically€examine€transcribed€conversational€interviews€on€a€topicÏfor€a€large€representative€sample€of€cases.€€Quantitative€scores€can€help€guide€comparative,€qualitativeÏanalysis€of€social€meanings€in€textual€data,€adding€depth€and€anchoring€to€quantitative€causal€analysesÐ u-$'+ Ðas€well.€€Fourth,€computerized€content€analysis€eliminates€coder€reliability€problems,€permitting€moreÏcareful€analysis€of€measurement€and€validity€issues.Ìà @ àIn€summary,€this€approach€has€a€number€of€advantages€for€systematic€analysis.€€NormingÏprovides€a€basis€for€examining€topical€emphasis€(including€distinctive€omissions)€in€a€text,€a€task€whichÏis€problematic€in€coding€open-ended€response€data€with€earlier€procedures.€Using€the€normed,Ïidea-emphasis€scores€(E-scores)€and€scores€reflecting€emphasis€upon€the€set€of€four€marker€contextsÏ(C-scores),€naturally€occurring€textual€material€can€be€"coded"€to€reflect€meanings€of€interest€to€anÏinvestigator.€The€set€of€scores€(C-scores€and€E-scores€for€each€text)€can€be€combined€for€traditionalÏquantitative,€statistical€analysis€with€independent€and€dependent€variables€measured€in€other€ways.€WeÏrefer€to€this€as€"Contextual€Content€Analysis"€to€distinguish€it€from€more€traditional€hand€and€computerÏcontent€analytic€approaches.€€This€approach€has€utility€for€social€science€research€by€providing€a€broadÏframework€for€characterizing€social€meanings€in€text€and€a€practical,€systematic€means€for€scoringÏtextual€data.€The€following€sections€further€describe€MCCA€and€provide€illustrations€of€its€use.ÌÌÌò òMeanings€in€Textó óÐ ø§  ÐÌAs€in€any€research,€the€meaning€that€is€attributed€to€a€text€depends€upon€the€researcher's€theory.€€ThereÏis€no€general€answer€to€the€question€of€what€a€textual€passage€"really"€means.€€Nor€is€there€generallyÏa€research€interest€in€capturing€"all"€of€the€meanings€that€may€be€attributable€to€a€text.€In€short,€theÏresearch€problem€and€the€theory€the€investigator€uses€will€specify€the€relevant€meanings€in€appropriateÏtext€for€certain€research€purposes.€Ìà @ àMarkoff€et€al.€(1975)€distinguishes€between€a€situation€where€subjects€have€an€interest€in€sharingÏmeanings€and€a€situation€where€subjects€intend€to€manipulate€the€investigator's€understanding€by€whatÏis€said.€€From€our€point€of€view,€manipulative€intentions€on€the€part€of€subjects€do€not€invalidate€anÏanalysis€of€what€is€said.€€This€does€suggest,€however,€that€explanatory€theories€might€also€include€theÏpossibility€of€intentional€manipulation.€€Similarly,€sub-cultural€and€individualistic€uses€of€words€shouldÏalso€be€entertained€in€explanatory€research€uses€of€text.ÌÌÌò òMeasuring€Contextó óÐ  !O ÐÌBy€"context",€we€mean€the€shared€meaning€or€social€definition€of€a€situation€of€interaction.€ContextÏprovides€an€underlying€orientation€for€subsequent€action.òò5óó€€There€are€several€levels€of€context.€€BroadÐ \$ ! Ðsocial€contexts€may€be€all-encompassing€such€as€the€meaning€of€being€a€world€citizen€or€a€human€orÏa€member€of€a€culture€or€nation€or€sub-culture.€€More€specifically,€shared€contexts€exist€regardingÏaspects€of€life,€such€as€work,€family€or€leisure.òò6óó€€The€meaning€of€social€context€plays€an€important€roleÐ 'Æ $ Ðin€a€number€of€explanatory€perspectives€in€social€science.òò7óóÐ (¯!% Ðà @ àThe€setting€of€communication€provides€a€framework€within€which€other€types€of€analysisÏproceed.€€Typically,€in€hand€content€analysis,€context€information€is€assumed€or€intuitively€determinedÏ(e.g.€"since€we€are€in€a€work€context,€we€will€examine€meanings€of€job€satisfaction€and€not€religiousÏsatisfaction"),€or€uses€information€outside€the€communication€itself€(e.g.€the€status€of€the€speaker,Ïconditions€under€which€the€text€was€prepared)€(Krippendorff€1980).€€This€confounds€description€orÏcharacterization€of€a€communication€with€the€explanatory€problem€of€determining€its€causes€andÐ v-%'+ Ðconsequences.€€To€avoid€these€hazards,€one€could€focus€on€the€measurement€problem:€coding€descriptiveÏinformation€about€ideas€and€context€expressed€within€a€text,€then€utilize€some€of€these€codes€inÏexplanatory€analysis€with€independently€measured€variables.€€Ìà @ àTypically,€words€introduce€the€context,€although€other€signs€and€symbols€may€do€so€as€well.€ÏFor€example,€when€someone€says€"Tell€me€about€your€work",€the€conversation€has€had€limits€andÏdirection€established€by€placement€within€one€context€(an€economic€or€work€context)€to€the€relativeÏexclusion€of€other€contexts€(e.g.€religious,€family,€leisure).€Ìà @ àContext€is€indicated€by€several€features€of€language.€€First,€it€is€indicated€by€the€range€ofÏvocabulary€used€in€a€social€encounter€or€in€discussing€a€topic€(the€number€of€unique€words€and€the€totalÏnumber€of€words€used).€€The€more€frequently€used€words€carry€much€of€the€important€information€thatÏdistinguishes€between€general€social€contexts.€€Of€all€the€available€words€and€constructions,€someÏspecific€subset€is€chosen€for€use€because€it€is€needed€to€encode€that€communication.òò8óóÐ T  Ðà @ àMiddle€range€words€carry€most€of€the€interesting€contextual€information€because€they€areÏgenerally€known€and€used,€appear€in€different€social€contexts,€and€their€relative€use€varies€widely€fromÏone€social€context€to€another.€€These€words€include€the€general€classes€of€nouns,€verbs,€adjectives€andÏadverbs€which€allow€description€and€evaluation€across€settings.€€They€also€include€(with€augmentationÏfrom€the€top€50€or€so€words)€the€pronouns,€adverbs€and€adjectives€which€specify€and€structure€theÏsituation.€€MCCA€focuses€particular€attention€on€the€middle„range€and€more€widely€used€words.Ìà @ àContextual€information€is€also€contained€in€the€focus€upon€some€words€or€word€groups€comparedÏto€others.€€This€can€be€seen€in€probability€distribution€patterns€across€idea/word€categories.€€IndividualsÏuse€ideas/words€in€distinctive,€patterned€ways€which€reflect€role€and€location€within€a€social€system€asÏwell€as€individual€socialization€and€other€individual€factors.€€Sub-cultures€have€typical€overall€patternsÏof€the€relative€use€of€conceptual€categories.€€Furthermore,€specific€social€settings€or€contexts€appear€toÏhave€typical€idea/word€patterns.€€Individuals€learn€these€patterns,€and€their€speech€reflects€changes€inÏpatterns€when€they€become€involved€in€different€social€settings€(e.g.€from€church€to€job€to€recreationÏto€school).€€Usage€patterns,€such€as€these,€come€to€typify€and€distinguish€institutionalized€social€settingsÏ(Namenwirth€1968;€Cleveland€et€al.€1974).€€Finally,€contextual€information€is€contained€in€theÏconnectedness€or€co-occurrence€of€ideas.Ìà @ àHowever€specific€or€general,€the€social€meaning€of€the€situation€is€important€because€it€providesÏthe€starting€point€for€individual€social€interaction.€€Knowing€the€social€context€means€that€a€person€isÏaware€of€what€general€kind€of€activity€is€likely€and€what,€generally,€is€appropriate€behavior.€Ìà @ àContextual€information€is€also€useful€in€distinguishing€between€multiple€meanings€of€certainÏwords,€such€as€"service",€as€illustrated€below.ÌÌÔ‡'ò’UòX'X¼ÃÔÔ*sƒ+, ddd Xdd Xdd XèŒ#èŒ#sÔÔ,Òdd ÔÔ,Òdd ÔÔ+  ÔÐ  C%ò" ……‹‹Ðà@}}&ºà"Service"ˆÐ (§%V# ‹‹(ÐMeaningsÐ %ü&« $ ‹‹%ÐContextÐ %ü&« % ‹‹%Ða.€€Religious€gatheringÌ€€€€€€€e.g.,€church€"service"Ð %)Á"' ‹‹%ÐTraditionalÐ %Q("( ‹‹%Ðb.€€Provision€of€aid,€assistanceÌ€€€€€€€e.g.,€road€"service"Ð %(+×$* ‹‹%ÐPracticalÐ %g*$+ ‹‹%Ðc.€€Introductory€game€ployÌ€€€€€€€e.g.,€tennis€"service"Ð %>-í&- ‹‹%Ðâ âEmotionalÐ&},,&.   &ÐÔ#†'X¼ÃXò'ò’Uì:#ÔÌâ âà @ àAn€empirical€approach€to€the€problem€of€measuring€social€context€proposed€here€makes€use€ofÏthe€content€analysis€framework.€€This€provides€a€basis€for€a€more€precise€evaluation€of€the€meaning€ofÏsocial€contexts€as€well€as€comparison€of€communication€across€contexts.€€MCCA€attempts€toÏsystematically€code€contextual€information€from€textual€data.ÌÌÌò òA€Framework€of€Four€General€Contextsó óÐ ° _ ÐÌIt€is€possible€to€distinguish€a€large€number€of€different€contextual€dimensions.€€However,€we€have€foundÏit€convenient€and€useful€to€work€with€a€small,€comprehensive€set€of€four€general€contexts:€(a)€traditional,Ï(b)€practical,€(c)€emotional,€and€(d)€analytic.Ìà @ àThese€four€satisfy€several€criteria€we€consider€important€for€any€set€of€contextual€"markers"€usedÏin€social€science€investigation.€€First,€it€must€be€possible€to€integrate€the€set€of€contexts€into€socialÏscience€inquiry€in€a€way€which€contributes€to€social€science€theory€and€interpretation.€€Secondly,€theyÏshould€broadly€address€all€aspects€of€society.€€That€is,€each€context€should€substantially€contribute€toÏa€kind€of€"triangulation"€which€would€help€to€locate€any€potential€text€in€relation€to€each€of€the€"marker"Ïcontexts.€€Thirdly,€the€set€of€contexts€should€contribute€to€the€interpretation€of€ideas/words€which€mayÏbe€identified€as€important.€€In€particular,€the€dimensions€should€help€identify€the€different€meanings€ofÏa€given€word€which€has€multiple€meanings€and€is€thus€contextually€ambiguous€(i.e.€"spring",€"service").€ÏFourthly,€contexts€should€contribute€to€the€explanation€of€social€behavior€by€making€it€possible€to€moveÏacross€levels€of€analysis,€considering€individual€social€motivation€as€well€as€institutionalized€socialÏperspectives.€€Finally,€the€set€of€contexts€should€fit€with€the€general€social€uses€of€language.Ìà @ àIn€our€application€of€MCCA€four€scores€indicate€the€relative€closeness€of€an€analyzed€text€toÏeach€of€the€four€general€contexts.€€These€four€scores€(called€C-scores)€are€used€as€measures€on€the€fourÏcontextual€dimensions.€€Some€evidence€suggests€that€they€can€be€used€to€define€an€approximatelyÏorthogonal€space€(Anderson€1970;€Cleveland€et€al.€1974;€Osgood€1957),€although€this€is€not€a€necessaryÏcriterion.€€Distances€between€texts€in€this€four-space€can€be€computed€and€used€to€express€the€proximityÏof€texts€to€each€other.Ìà @ àEach€of€the€four€contexts€incorporates€a€general€idea€of€societal€activity€and€represents€aÏdifferent€framework€within€which€specific€concepts€can€emerge:Ìà0 @ àà è àa)€Traditional€Context.€€A€normative€perspective€on€the€social€situation€predominates€and€the€situationÏis€defined€in€terms€of€standards,€rules€and€codes€which€guide€social€behavior.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ðà0 @ àà è àb)€Practical€Context.€€A€pragmatic€perspective€of€the€social€situation€predominates€and€behavior€isÏdirected€toward€the€rational€achievement€of€goals.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ðà0 @ àà è àc)€Emotional€Context.€€An€affective€perspective€predominates€and€the€situation€is€defined€in€terms€ofÏexpressions€of€emotion€(both€positive€and€negative),€and€maximizing€individual€involvement,Ïpersonal€concern€and€comfort.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ðà0 @ àà è àd)€Analytic€Context.€€An€intellectual€perspective€predominates€and€the€situation€is€defined€in€objectiveÏterms.Ð @Œ#@Œ# ÐTable€1€schematically€illustrates€the€way€in€which€word€groupings€in€a€conceptual€dictionary€can€reflectÏidea€categories€and€certain€idea€categories€may€be€emphasized€more€heavily€in€certain€social€contexts.€ÏIn€MCCA,€ambiguous€words€are€contextually€disambiguated€to€determine€the€most€appropriate€category,Ïand€each€category€receives€some€differential€weight€reflective€of€its€usage€in€the€different€contexts.Ð u-$'+ ÐßF€E*75%!p p ´ þ `€€Fßâ èéèéèŒ#èŒ#â°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èŒ#èŒ#èéèéâñ¤ñÔ‡&X¼ÃXX'X¼ÃÔò òConducting€Contextual€Content€Analysisó óÐ …4 ÐÌConceptual€content€analysis€focuses€on€ideas€in€text.€€Contextual€content€analysis€lends€perspective€toÏthose€ideas.€€The€two€sets€of€scores€are€used€together.€€There€are€a€series€of€stages€in€the€execution€ofÏa€research€design€incorporating€contextual/conceptual€content€analysis.ÌÔ#†'X¼ÃXX&X¼ÃåO#Ôñ¤ñà @ àThe€first€stage€involves€the€methodological€choice€of€content€analysis.òò9óó€€A€contextual/conceptualÐ Â Ðcontent€analysis€is€appropriate€in€one€of€three€situations.€€Because€it€is€basically€an€approach€toÏmeasurement,€it€is€useful€in€(a)€descriptive€or€explanatory€studies€--€especially€where€one€wants€toÏidentify€and€contrast€meanings€for€one€or€more€text€units,€(b)€in€hypothesis€testing,€or€(c)€in€exploratoryÏinquiries€--€especially€where€questions€are€complex,€uncharted€and€changing,€(e.g.€new€constructs,Ïdeveloping€issues,€or€changes€over€time).Ìà @ àThe€second€stage€involves€decisions€on€specific€research€procedures.€€Contextual/conceptualÏcontent€analysis€involves€all€the€usual€considerations€in€research€such€as€design,€measurement,Ïsampling,€pretesting,€data-gathering,€all€of€the€possibilities€of€statistical€analysis€and€reporting.òò10óó€€In€eachÐ [$ ! Ðof€these,€standard€considerations€about€theoretical€grounding€and€craftsmanship€apply.Ìà @ àSince€contextual€content€analysis€examines€patterns€of€use€of€ideas€in€text,€it€is€important€thatÏthe€text€qualify€as€research€data.€€That€is,€it€must€be€relevant€to€the€research€problem€and€containÏcharacteristic€patterns€of€word€usage€rather€than€an€edited€or€altered€pattern€of€usage.€€In€the€interviewÏsituation,€skill€in€providing€a€free,€natural€stimulus€to€expression€with€minimal€intrusive€constraint€isÏimportant.€€Use€of€a€verbatim€transcript€(or€a€representative€sample€from€it)€is€critical€because€it€containsÏthe€pattern€information€central€to€contextual/conceptual€analysis.òò11óó€€A€machine-readable€computer€fileÐ º*i$( Ðof€the€desired€verbatim€text€is€created.€€Word€processors€are€useful€for€this€purpose,€and€optical€scannersÏare€available€which€read€printed€text€and€convert€it€directly€into€a€computer€file.Ìà @ àThe€third€stage€involves€the€scoring€procedures€themselves.€€MCCA€uses€a€conceptual€dictionaryÐ u-$'+ Ðaugmented€with€the€four€contexts€(traditional,€practical,€emotional€and€analytic).€€The€computer€matchesÏeach€word€in€the€text€against€the€word€meanings€in€the€dictionary,€keeping€a€running€tally€of€usage,Ïconcept€by€concept.€€Words€not€in€the€dictionary€are€tallied€in€a€"leftover"€list.€€Conceptual€categoryÏtallies€are€percentaged€for€each€text€by€the€total€words€in€the€text.€€This€score€is€subtracted€from€anÏexpected€score€obtained€from€a€norm€to€yield€an€emphasis€score€for€each€of€the€concepts€included€in€theÏdictionary.òò11óó€€It€is€important€to€take€account€of€variability€in€the€use€of€ideas/words€across€socialÐ Þ  Ðcontexts.€€This€is€done€by€dividing€by€the€standard€deviation€of€category€usage€across€the€four€contextsÏto€yield€useful€emphasis€scores€(E-scores):ÌßB€B=>1!` 0  p »Bßâ èéèéèŒ#èŒ#â°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èŒ#èŒ#èéèéâwhere€òòEóó-score(òòi,kóó)€is€the€E-score€for€category€"òòióó"€in€text€"òòkóó";€òòp(i,k)óó€is€the€observed€proportion€of€text€inÐ &Õ  Ðconceptual€category€"òòióó"€for€text€"òòkóó";€òòP(i)óó€is€the€overall€expected€probability€of€use€of€category€"òòióó";€andÐ ¾  ÐòòS(i)óó€is€the€expected€standard€deviation€of€category€usage€across€contexts.òò12óóÐ ø§  Ðà @ àòòE„scoresóó€are€computed€for€each€of€116€idea/word€categories€distinguished€in€the€currentÐ á Ðdictionary.€€They€are€the€basic€measures€used€for€the€òòconceptualóó€analysis.€€The€pattern€of€connectednessÐ Êy Ðof€various€ideas€in€a€text€is€examined€using€a€clustering€routine.€€Similarity€and€distinction€between€textsÏin€terms€of€emphasized€patterns€of€ideas€can€be€quantified€as€well.€€A€distance€between€texts€can€beÏmeasured€as€a€discrepancy€between€texts€on€their€profile€of€relative€use€of€the€117€conceptual€categoriesÏ(the€117th€category€is€the€"left-over"€list€of€uncategorized€words).€€The€structure€of€conceptualÏdifferences€shown€in€this€proximity€matrix€can€also€be€examined€by€clustering€and€other€statisticalÏtechniques.Ìà @ àFour€òòC„scoresóó€or€contextual€scores€are€also€created€during€computer€processing€of€the€text.€€AsÐ )Ø Ðeach€word€is€identified€and€classified€into€a€conceptual€category,€four€cumulative€contextual€scores€areÏeach€updated€as€illustrated€in€Table€3.€€The€updating€uses€weights€which€reflect€the€relative€use€of€eachÏconceptual€category€in€the€four€general€social€contexts.€€At€any€point€during€processing,€theseÏaccumulating€scores€are€available€to€be€used€in€contextually€disambiguating€ambiguous€words.€€ContextÏscores€are€used€to€decide€between€alternative€categorizations.Ìà @ àAccumulated€contextual€scores€over€a€text€are€standardized.€€These€four€scores€are€the€fourÏcontextual€dimension€measures.€€Distances€between€texts€in€this€four-space€can€be€computed€and€usedÏto€express€the€proximity€of€texts€to€each€other,€in€terms€of€their€approach€to€the€ideas€that€are€discussed.€ÏCluster€analysis€helps€display€the€structure€of€this€proximity€matrix.Ìà @ àFinally,€E-scores€often€identify€fruitful€starting€points€for€further€qualitative€analysis.€€TheÏcomputer€can€further€assist€qualitative€analysis€by€sorting€and€organizing€the€text,€by€searching€for€allÏinstances€of€the€use€of€some€word€or€phrase,€or€by€showing€the€use€of€key€words€in€sentences€andÏphrases€in€the€text€through€key€word€in€context€(KWIC)€lists.€€An€inspection€of€these€phrases€oftenÏpermits€a€refinement€of€the€sense€of€the€general€conceptual€categories€and€helps€identify€broaderÏconcepts€extending€across€several€conceptual€categories.€€This€grounding€draws€on€strengths€ofÏqualitative€approaches€to€text€analysis€within€a€systematic,€comparative€research€framework.ÌÔ‡&X¼ÃXX'X¼ÃÔà @ àVariables,€including€composite€indices€developed€from€contextual€and€conceptual€analysisÐ ¢+Q%) Ðscores,€can€be€included€in€a€data€set€for€statistical€analysis,€together€with€variables€developed€in€any€ofÏthe€other€more€traditional€ways.€€€We€have€treated€C-€and€E-scores€as€continuous,€interval-levelÐ t-#'+ Ðmeasures.ñ¥ñÌñ¥ñÌÔ#†'X¼ÃXX&X¼Ã¡h#ÔßF€E?C5%!p p ´ þ `€€Fßâ èéèéèŒ#èŒ#â°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èŒ#èŒ#èéèéâÌò òAn€Illustrationó óÐ )Ø ÐÌTo€illustrate€the€ability€of€contextual/conceptual€analysis€to€distinguish€between€texts,€we€selected€shortÏpassages€from€five€published€articles:Ìà0 @ àà è à(a)€Scholarly€Journal€Article€-€report€of€research€findings€on€the€impact€of€pre-retirement€programs€onÏpost-retirement€satisfaction€and€behavior€for€older€people;Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ðà0 @ àà è à(b)€Airline€Finance€News€-€a€financial-page,€newspaper€report€about€an€airline's€financial€problemsÏassociated€with€costs€of€long-distance€flights;Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ðà0 @ àà è à(c)€Magazine€Fiction€-€a€newsstand€magazine€story€incorporating€"stream€of€consciousness"€writingÏabout€personal€feelings,€reflections€on€life€situation,€and€future€possibilities;€Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ðà0 @ àà è à(d)€Religious€Devotional€-€a€passage€from€a€daily€religious€reading€providing€guidance€for€personalÏliving€(this€selection€dealt€with€feelings€of€depression€and€loneliness);€Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ðà0 @ àà è à(e)€Editorial€on€Recent€Crimes€-€an€incensed€editorial€reaction€to€a€series€of€person-crimes,€coupled€withÏdemands€for€action€to€be€taken€by€authorities.Ð @Œ#@Œ# ÐThe€first€four€texts€were€expected€to€show€relative€emphasis€on€one€of€the€four€contexts.€€The€last€textÏwas€chosen€to€illustrate€the€use€of€contextual/conceptual€content€analysis€in€locating€an€ambiguous€textÏin€relation€to€other€texts.Ìà @ àThe€texts€were€entered€verbatim€into€a€computer€file€and€checked€for€accuracy€and€spelling€butÏnot€edited€in€any€way.€€Using€the€MCCA€8.3€contextual/conceptual€content€analysis€program,€each€textÏwas€scored€both€conceptually€(E-scores)€and€contextually€(C-scores).Ð u-$'+ Ðà @ àTable€3,€below,€provides€a€profile€of€four€contextual€scores€for€each€of€these€five€passages.€€InÏthis€example,€the€scores€are€standardized€to€sum€to€zero€for€a€text,€to€aid€in€comparing€relative€emphasisÏon€contexts.€€The€higher€the€positive€score,€the€more€the€text€can€be€said€to€focus€on€a€contextualÏdimension.€€Greater€negative€scores€reflect€less€emphasis€on€that€context.ÌÌßF€EJM5%!p p ´ þ `€€Fßâ èéèéèŒ#èŒ#â°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èŒ#èŒ#èéèéâà @ àThere€are€two€major€contrasts€to€be€explored€in€Table€3.€€First,€the€analyst€can€examineÏdistinctions€between€articles.€€It€is€clear€in€the€table€that€the€scholarly€article€is€the€highest€of€all€textsÏon€the€òòanalytic€óócontextual€dimension.€€The€magazine€fiction€and€the€crime€editorial€have€high€C-scoresÐ ³b Ðon€the€òòemotionalóó€dimension.€€Both€the€scholarly€article€and€the€airline€finance€news€have€high€òòpragmaticóóÐ œK Ðscores€while€the€religious€devotional€and,€to€some€extent,€the€crime€editorial,€emphasize€the€òòtraditionalóó.€Ð …4 ÐAn€analysis€of€contextual€scores€provides€information€on€similarity€between€texts€in€the€approach€takenÏto€the€topic€at€hand.€€Here,€differences€clearly€reflect€what€one€might€expect€texts€from€these€sourcesÏto€be.€€€Ìà @ àThe€second€analytic€path€is€an€examination€of€the€pattern€of€emphasis€on€different€contexts€forÏa€given€text.€€Each€of€the€pieces€is€not€exclusively€in€a€single€context€but€has€a€primary€focus€andÏunder-emphasizes€certain€other€contexts.€€That€is,€the€text-author€opted€to€emphasize€a€given€contextualÏapproach€at€the€expense€of€certain€other€approaches€which€could€have€been€utilized.€€Often€the€particularÏpattern€of€positive€and€negative€C-scores€is€important€to€examine.Ìà @ àFor€example,€the€scholarly€article€contains€both€practical€and€analytic€elements,€reflecting€bothÏthe€practical€concern€of€pre-retirement€programs€as€well€as€the€analytic€approach€of€research.€ÏInterestingly,€the€contextual€pattern€for€the€crime€editorial€emphasizes€the€emotional€componentÏstemming€from€the€writer's€anger€at€the€lack€of€resolution,€and€traditional€elements€about€what€"should"Ïbe€done.€This€is€accomplished€by€de„emphasizing€practical€and€analytic€approaches.Ìà @ àC-scores€for€each€text€can€be€included€with€other€variables€in€a€more€extensive€analysis€ofÏhypothesized€causes,€consequences€or€correlates€of€the€social€context€of€texts.€€Context€scores€can€alsoÏbe€used€as€controls€in€an€analysis€of€other€relationships.€€A€distance€measure€(shown€in€table€4)€can€beÏcomputed€between€texts,€using€the€four€C-scores€for€each€text€in€Table€3.€€This€can€be€used€in€clusterÏanalyses€to€display€the€structure€of€contextual€differences.Ìà @ àThe€five€texts€differ€in€the€way€they€approach€their€subject„matter.€€The€scholarly€article€€andÏthe€airline€financial€news€are€contextually€more€similar„„quite€different€in€approach€from€the€magazineÏfiction.€€The€crime€editorial€falls€between€the€emotionality€of€the€magazine€story€and€the€traditionalismÏof€the€religious€text.€€Equipped€with€theoretical€expectations,€such€plots€have€proven€helpful€inÏmeasuring€patterned€differences€in€context€between€texts.Ð t-#'+ Ðñ¥ñÐ ¢+Q%) Ðñ¥ñßF€EHP5%!p p ´ þ `€€Fßâ èéèéèŒ#èŒ#â°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èŒ#èŒ#èéèéâà @ àTable€5€shows€the€E-score€pattern€for€the€five€illustrative€texts€on€25€of€the€116€conceptualÏcategories€identified€in€the€conceptual€dictionary.€€Conceptual€categories€where€the€absolute€value€(orÏmaximum€absolute€difference€in€E-scores€across€texts)€met€a€heuristic,€substantive€criterion€(i.e.€10€orÏlarger)€were€selected.€€The€rationale€is€that€small€differences,€approaching€zero,€are€close€to€the€overallÏnorm€for€use€of€that€category€and€that€important€emphasis,€omission,€or€differences€between€texts€areÏof€initial€analytic€interest.Ìà @ àTable€5€shows€that€the€five€illustrative€texts€deal€with€quite€different€concepts€as€was€anticipated.€ÏThe€general€character€of€the€concepts€with€which€they€each€deal€can€be€identified€simply€from€the€adÏhoc€labels€of€the€dictionary's€broad€conceptual€categories.€€Thus,€the€crime€editorial€dealt€with€the€needÏfor€sanctions€to€be€applied€for€wrongs€which€had€occurred.€€The€role€of€authorities€and€what€they€shouldÏbe€expected€to€do€were€central€ideas.€€On€the€other€hand,€the€religious€devotional€dealt€with€wanting€toÏchange€one's€life€in€some€way€to€deal€with€or€avoid€feelings€of€depression€and€loneliness.€€The€magazineÏstory€was€toying€with€ways€of€seeing€things€and€changing€viewpoints,€themes€that€begin€to€be€reflectedÏin€conceptual€category€labels€in€Table€5.€€Some€of€these€ideas€are€shared€by€other€texts€as€well.€ÏHandling€more€immediate€financial€obligations€involved€in€flying€can€be€seen€in€E-scores€for€the€airlineÏnews€text.€€Finally,€some€of€the€ideas€involved€in€retiree€activities€and€the€helpful€role€of€formerÏemployer's€programs€can€be€seen€in€the€scholarly€article.Ìà @ àA€proximity€matrix€can€be€computed€showing€the€distance€between€the€overall€profile€of€ideasÏemphasized€in€different€texts.€€This€matrix€of€"conceptual"€differences€between€texts€(not€shown),€likeÏthe€matrix€of€"contextual"€differences€between€texts€shown€in€Table€4,€above,€can€be€analyzed€withÏcluster€and€other€analytic€techniques.€€Differences€and€similarities€between€texts€may€be€evident€in€theÏcontext€of€the€discussion€and/or€the€kinds€of€concepts€which€are€discussed.Ìà @ àMost€analysis€would€not€stop€at€this€point€but€instead€would€make€use€of€further€detail€onÏvocabulary€and€phrases€found€in€each€of€the€texts€which€accounts€for€notably€high€or€low€E-scores.€ÏMCCA€provides€lists€of€words€from€each€text€which€were€classified€in€each€conceptual€category.€€AnÏexamination€of€these€often€leads€to€an€identification€of€the€specific€conceptual€meanings€only€broadlyÏhinted€in€the€overall€category€labels.€€More€appropriate€theoretical€concepts€may€be€identified€from€aÏpattern€of€E-scores€over€more€than€one€conceptual€category,€using€more€elaborate€measurement€modelsÏ(Weber€1983).Ìñ¥ñÐ ¹*h$( Ðñ¥ñÐ ¹*h$( ÐßF€ERU5%!p p ´ þ `€€Fßâ èéèéèŒ#èŒ#â³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èéèéèéèéâ³â èŒ#èŒ#èéèéâò òThe€issues€of€validity€and€reliabilityó óÐ Z$ ! ÐÌIssues€of€validity€and€reliability€for€contextual€content€analysis€are€best€addressed€in€specific€researchÏsituations€as€is€true€for€other€measurement€techniques€(e.g.€Likert€scaling)€where€concepts€and€theirÏmeasures€can€be€examined.€€A€number€of€authors€have€addressed€reliability€and€validity€questions€inÏhand€content€analysis€(Krippendorff€1980;€Holsti€1969;€Weber€1983;€Andren€1981).€€There€are€a€numberÏof€relevant€observations€we€would€make€about€computer€content€analysis.Ìà @ àImportant€aspects€of€reliability€in€content€analysis€are€handled€by€the€use€of€a€computer.€ÏComputer€content€analysis€procedures€process€a€given€text€file€reliably,€in€accordance€with€instructionsÏin€a€specific€program.€€This€is€a€major€advantage€in€that€computers€permit€investigators€to€realisticallyÏconsider€the€inclusion€of€verbatim€text€in€systematic€research€on€larger€or€more€representative€samplesÐ u-$'+ Ðand€on€contrasting€varieties€of€substantive€topics.Ìà @ àThere€are€larger€questions€of€reliability,€however,€which€need€attention,€such€as€the€reliabilityÏinvolved€in€production€of€text€(e.g.€will€two€conversations€with€the€same€person€on€the€same€topic€yieldÏthe€same€patterns,€controlling€for€pretesting€and€other€change€factors?).€€There€is€also€an€interesting€areaÏof€inquiry€involving€sampling€variability€of€patterns€given€a€certain€number€of€respondents,€documents,Ïwords,€topics,€and€the€like,€which€may€require€some€reconceptualization€prior€to€application€ofÏtraditional€sampling€theory.€€In€some€instances,€for€example,€it€appears€that€one€should€take€account€ofÏthe€over-time€branching€pattern€developed€in€a€conversation€on€a€topic€or€acknowledge€that€someÏconversations€amount€to€different€respondents€independently€articulating€a€widely€shared€aspect€ofÏculture.€€In€any€event,€it€appears€from€experience€that€stability€in€patterns€is€often€reached€with€relativelyÏfew€words€(500€to€1000€on€a€topic)€or€modest€samples€of€respondents.€€Ìà @ àIt€is€generally€inappropriate€to€generalize€validity€findings€to€a€whole€measurement€approachÏalthough€certain€typical€strengths€and€weaknesses€may€be€identified.€€Few€social€science€theoriesÏprovide€a€deductive€link€with€word€patterns€and€constructs.€€Instead,€investigators€using€content€analysisÏrely€upon€many€of€the€same€assumptions€about€shared€meanings€which€are€central€to€the€use€of€otherÏmeasurement€approaches€(e.g.€survey€questionnaires).€€The€assumption€that€there€are€wide€areas€ofÏconsensus€about€the€meaning€of€words€appears€to€be€justified€(illustrated€by€the€usefulness€of€a€standardÏdictionary)€in€many€research€situations.€€There€is€also€widespread€reliance€upon€face€(content)€validityÏassessment€of€measures,€which€emerges€from€informed€judgments,€prior€knowledge,€tests€of€intuitiveÏplausibility,€etc.Ìà @ àCan€anything€be€said€in€general€about€validity€of€content€analytic€measures,€including€thoseÏcomputed€by€MCCA?€€Our€experiences€to€date€suggest€rather€direct€links€between€content€analysisÏmeasures€and€certain€theoretical€concepts.€€One€reason€for€this€may€be€that€content€analysis€allows€oneÏto€operate€directly€on€the€expressed€meanings€and€emphases€of€subjects€rather€than€requiring€them€toÏtranslate€their€experiences€into€structured€statements€closer€to€the€researcher's€needs.€€The€emphases€andÏnuances€of€respondents€are€preserved.€€Another€possible€reason€for€a€sense€of€greater€substantiveÏvalidity€is€that€the€data€are€more€likely€to€be€gathered€as€a€part€of€the€normal€process€of€humanÏcommunication€rather€than€the€"encoded"€or€"pre-structured"€conversation.Ìà @ àThere€have€been€a€number€of€opportunities€for€predictive€validity€checks€within€researchÏprojects.€€For€example,€a€study€which€compared€open-ended€conversation€by€husbands€and€wives€aboutÏtheir€relationship,€resulted€in€accurate€classifications€of€couples€both€in€behavioral€terms€(seekingÏdivorce,€seeking€outside€help,€or€coping)€and€as€compared€with€independent€judgments€made€byÏclinicians€with€access€to€the€couples€(McDonald€and€Weidetke€1979).Ìà @ àAnother€study€assessed€open-ended€responses€to€a€series€of€proposed€new€financial€services€toÏbe€offered€by€a€bank.€€The€content€analysis€data€were€able€to€accurately€predict€the€success€or€failureÏof€the€actually€offered€services€(Pirro€1981).€€A€recent€study€of€religious€meaning€and€life€satisfactionÏ(Woodworth€1982)€used€both€a€content€analytic€assessment€of€interview€transcriptions€about€lifeÏsatisfaction€and€a€widely€used€scale€item.€€Initial€comparisons€suggested€a€lack€of€correspondenceÏbetween€the€scale€item€and€content€analytic€scores€but€further€examination€indicated€that€some€of€theÏminor€content€analytic€scores€could€predict€the€structured€scale€rating€(R€squared€=€.86)€but€the€mainÏideas€that€were€emphasized€by€respondents€in€discussing€their€satisfaction€were€in€quite€different€areas.€ÏThis€suggests€predictive€validity€of€that€which€a€traditional€scale€measures,€but€points€to€the€utility€ofÏbeing€more€sensitive€to€a€subject's€own€emphases.€€A€content€analytic€assessment€of€interviews€withÏsixteen€prison€ex-inmates€about€their€prison€experience€led€to€the€accurate€post-diction€of€general€typeÐ t-#'+ Ðof€crime,€escape€record€and€recorded€recidivism€over€the€twenty€years€prior€to€the€interview,€all€fromÏa€few€content€analytic€scores€(Felt€and€McTavish€1983).Ìà @ àMCCA€has€also€been€utilized€in€an€examination€of€the€validity€of€scale€items.€€Here,€each€scaleÏitem€is€treated€as€a€distinct€"text"€for€which€C-scores€and€E-scores€are€derived.€€A€number€of€analysesÏhave€been€pursued€such€as€discriminant€function€analysis€where€scale€(or€sub-scale)€discrimination€inÏterms€of€the€content€analytic€meaning€scores€is€attempted.€€In€suggestive€analyses€of€standard€LikertÏscales€(e.g.€alienation,€job€design,€job€satisfaction),€a€small€set€of€relevant€E-scores€and€C-scoresÏaccurately€classify€scale€items€on€their€theoretically€appropriate€scale.€€Inaccurately€classified€itemsÏreflected€scale-item€problems€discussed€in€the€literature.€€Further,€the€particular€MCCA€scores€in€theÏclassifying€equations€reflect€the€substantive€character€of€the€concept€which€the€scale€items€wereÏpurported€to€measure€(McTavish€and€Felt€1985;€Pierce€et€al.€1984).€€A€comparison€of€publishedÏreliability€scores€for€scales€and€the€contextual€distance€between€scale€items€suggests€that€contextualÏambiguity€may€contribute€to€scale€unreliability.€€Contextual€content€analysis€was€useful€in€identifyingÏproblem€items€and€suggesting€more€specific€ways€in€which€items€could€be€improved€to€fit€with€the€restÏof€the€scale€(McTavish€1987).€€MCCA€has€also€been€useful€in€an€examination€of€organizational€contextÏand€role€distance€in€nursing€homes€(McTavish€and€Felt€1987).Ìà @ àIt€has€been€helpful€to€include€traditional€measures€of€key€concepts€in€content€analytic€studies€asÏwell€as€separately€measured€predictors.€€Adding€"criterion€text"€profiles€to€an€analysis€also€aids€validityÏassessment.€€If€the€criterion€text/s€represent€a€relatively€pure€instance€of€a€theoretical€construct€orÏposition€on€a€theoretical€continuum,€then€analysis€of€the€distance€of€other€texts€from€the€criterion€canÏaid€in€analysis€and€validity€assessment.€€Predictive€and€post-dictive€studies€are€useful€where€alternativeÏinformation€can€identify€relevant€criteria€to€predict.Ìà @ àFinally,€one€can€often€identify€expected€relationships€which€can€be€examined€in€content€analysis.€ÏOur€experience€is€that€during€the€process€of€analysis€a€whole€series€of€relatively€low€level€expectationsÏcan€be€generated€and€tested€along€the€line€of€"if€this€is€an€accurate€interpretation,€then€one€would€alsoÏexpect€that€to€be€true..."€€The€result€is€a€series€of€small€construct€validity€tests€or€"triangulations"€which,Ïin€sum,€lend€substantial€insight€into€validity€questions.ÌÌÌò òConclusionsó óÐ ¶ e ÐÌComputer-based,€contextual/conceptual€content€analysis€augments€traditional€measurement€approachesÏand€provides€a€further€means€by€which€strengths€of€qualitative€and€quantitative€research€can€beÏintegrated.€€It€would€appear€to€expand€realistic€possibilities€for€reliable€and€systematic€analysis€of€aÏbroader€range€of€social€science€data€such€as€historic€documents,€cross-cultural€materials,€transcripts€ofÏinterviews,€ongoing€verbal€processes,€and€open-ended€responses.Ìà @ àFurther€theoretical€and€quantitative€work€is€needed€on€linkages€between€conceptual€definitionsÏof€key€social€science€variables€and€patterns€of€word€usage€as€well€as€on€expectations€for€comparativeÏword€patterns€across€cultures,€societies,€institutions,€organizations€and€historic€time.€€Work€to€dateÏsuggests€that€an€ability€to€more€directly€deal€with€expressions€of€social€meanings€in€a€rigorous€analyticÏframework€is€possible€and€useful€for€social€science€investigation.Ð  º*i$( Ðò òNotesó óÐ Q ÐÌÔ‡'ò’UòX'X¼ÃÔ1.à0 @ àWe€are€indebted€to€Susan€Schrader€for€her€editorial€assistance.Ð$Ó@Œ#@Œ# Ð2.à0 @ àThe€most€recent€introductory€summary€is€by€Weber€(1985).€€Wood€(1980)€summarizes€alternatives€and€options€inÐ å” Ðcomputer€content€analysis.€€Earlier€literature€includes€Berelson€(1952,€1954),€I.€de€Sola€Pool€(1959),€Holsti€(1969),ÏNorth€et€al.€(1963),€Gerbner€et€al.€(1969),€Krippendorff€(1980),€and€Rosengren€(1981).€€Stone's€General€InquirerÏcomputer€program€is€a€prominent,€early€computer€content€analysis€system€developed€at€Harvard€(Stone€et€al.€1966).€ÏGrimshaw€(1973,€1974,€1980)€reviews€some€of€the€social€science€literature€on€language.€€Content€analysis€appearsÏin€several€social€science€methods€texts€such€as€Kerlinger€(1973)€and€its€integration€into€general€methods€has€beenÏdiscussed€(Markoff€et€al.€1975).€€Recent€special€issues€of€journals€have€presented€suggestive€uses€of€microcomputersÏin€handling€text€field€note€data€in€research€("Computers€and€Qualitative€Data"€in€òòQualitative€Sociologyóó€(1984);€andÐ ,Û  ÐòòQuality€and€Quantityóó€(1984).Ðíœ @Œ#@Œ# Ð3.à0 @ àMCCA€8.3,€the€Minnesota€Contextual€Content€Analysis€computer€program€(version€8.3€by€McTavish),€is€operatingÐ ®]  Ðon€a€Control€Data€Cyber€174€computer€at€the€University€of€Minnesota,€Twin€Cities.€€The€package€of€programsÏwhich€accomplishes€contextual€content€analysis€operates€directly€on€a€machine-readable,€verbatim€text€file.€€ThreeÏoutput€files€are€created:€a)€an€across-group€comparative€summary€of€results€of€the€MCCA€analysis€including€clusterÏanalyses€and€co-occurrence€analysis,€b)€a€file€of€results€and€certain€diagnostic€indices€summarized€separately€forÏeach€text€analyzed,€and€c)€a€data€file€of€content€analytic€scores€for€each€text€(including€C„scores€and€E„scores)€whichÏcan€be€used€as€a€part€of€a€data€base€for€further€statistical€analysis€in€programs€such€as€SPSS.€€Distinctive€word€usageÏis€identified€and€these€can€be€used€as€starting€points€for€further€examination€of€the€text€(e.g.€key„word„in„contextÏlistings€and€phrase€retrievals).€Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ðà0 @ àà ˜ àThe€analysis€reported€here€was€partially€supported€by€grants€from€Rural€Sociology€and€the€UniversityÏComputer€Center,€University€of€Minnesota.€€Currently,€MCCA€8.3€is€being€extended€and€converted€for€use€on€microÏcomputers€and€mainframe€computer€systems€other€than€the€CDC€Cyber€at€the€University€of€Minnesota€on€whichÏit€is€currently€operating.€€Arrangements€for€research€use€of€the€MCCA€program€on€the€University€of€MinnesotaÏcomputer€can€be€made€by€contacting€Don€McTavish,€Department€of€Sociology,€University€of€Minnesota,ÏMinneapolis,€MN€€55455.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ð4.à0 @ àThese€include€the€Harvard€social-psychological€dictionaries€which€are€based,€in€part,€on€the€work€of€Talcott€ParsonsÐ ý¬ Ðand€embody€structural-functional€concepts€(Stone€et€al.€1966€chapters€4€and€5;€1974);€the€Lasswell€Value€DictionaryÏcenters€around€his€theory€of€values€(Peterson€and€Brewer€1965;€Lasswell€1968).€€€Special€topic€dictionaries€existÏsuch€as€the€Pirro€African€Dictionary€(Pirro€1968);€a€verbal€style€dictionary€(Hart€1984);€the€Institutional€RhetoricsÏDictionary€(Cleveland€1972);€and€others),€as€well€as€dictionaries€for€several€languages€including€French€andÏGerman.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ð5.à0 @ àHere€we€are€interested€in€an€aspect€of€the€social€use€of€language€or€"pragmatics"€(Levenson€1983;€Bates€1978;Ð ƒ2! ÐWatslawick€et€al.€1967).Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ð6.à0 @ àMore€specific€contextual€meaning€may€be€shared€by€virtue€of€participation€in€an€organization,€as€an€organizationalÐ !´# Ð"culture"€(Barley€1983;€Felt€1985).€€Many€more€specific€contexts€exist€as€well,€in€particular€places€or€times€(e.g.Ïfirm€A's€mail€room€or€marketing€division).€€Individuals€typically€participate€in€several€different€social€contexts€inÏthe€course€of€a€day€(e.g.€family,€work,€ball€game,€college€class),€shifting€language€patterns€as€they€do€so.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ð7.à0 @ àParsons€1951,€1964;€Rose€1962;€Stone€and€Farberman€1970;€Rochberg-Halton€1982;€Deese€1965;€Berger€andÐ  $¸' ÐLuckman€1967;€Carroll€1957.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ð8.à0 @ àIn€the€U.S.€(and€apparently€in€other€Western€societies€as€well),€a€few€words,€specifically€the€most€frequently€usedÐ ‹%:) Ð50€words,€account€for€a€high€percentage€of€word€use€(about€43€percent€for€English).€€The€next€4950€most€frequentlyÏused€set€of€words€(up€to,€the€5,000th€word)€account€for€another€48€percent€of€word€usage.€€Words€beyond€the€topÏ5,000€or€so€account€in€the€aggregate€for€about€9€percent€of€word€usage€and€are€often€technical€terms€or€proper€nounsÏwhich€are€restricted€to€highly€specific€conversations€or€situations.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ð9.à0 @ àOne€does€content€analysis,€of€any€variety,€when€there€is€theoretical€reason€to€believe€that€meaning€is€embodied€inÐ P)ÿ". Ða€set€of€written€or€spoken€textual€materials.€€Additional€discussion€of€the€incorporation€of€content€analyses€as€aÏmethod€for€research€can€be€found€in€Krippendorff€(1980),€Holsti€(1969),€Markoff€et€al.(1975),€and€Weber€(1985).Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ð10.à0 @ àContent€analysis€studies€involve€many€of€the€same€sampling€issues€that€are€involved€in€other€types€of€social€scienceÐ “+B%1 Ðresearch.€€For€example,€the€selection€of€texts€to€examine€is€a€reflection€of€the€theoretical€problem€and€the€types€ofÏneeded€contrasts.€€Texts€may€be€selected€to€reflect€different€actors€or€organizations€or€time€periods,€or€a€combinationÏsuch€as€selection€of€material€over€the€course€of€a€conversation€between€two€people€where€both€speaker€and€time€areÐ Ö-…'4 Ðdistinguished.€€Content€analytic€texts€can€be€selected€from€individuals,€groups,€societies,€organizations€or€variousÏanalytic€groupings€of€text.€€Text€to€be€content€analyzed€generally€should€be€an€accurate,€unedited,€verbatimÏstatement.€€In€some€instances,€theory€may€dictate€editing€out€irrelevant€material.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ðà0 @ àà ˜ àThe€level€at€which€sampling€is€done€depends€to€some€extent€on€the€theoretical€level€of€interest€in€research.€ÏGenerally,€the€more€complex€the€organizational€level€to€be€investigated,€the€more€extensive€the€block€of€text€thatÏwould€be€identified€as€the€unit€in€sampling€(e.g.€word,€phrase,€sentence,€paragraph,€document,€or€set€of€documents.).€ÏTraditional€probability€sampling€procedures€are€relevant€and€useful€in€content€analysis.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ð11.à0 @ àThe€contextual€analysis€proposed€here€is€based€on€the€differential€profile€of€use€of€language€by€individuals€andÐ ˜ G Ðgroups€as€established€by€regularities€in€language€use€in€several€settings.€€Various€works€on€language€and€its€use€haveÏhelped€to€establish€some€of€the€regularities.€€Kucera€and€Francis€(1967)€provide€word€counts€and€percentages€forÏa€large€sampling€of€public,€written€material€produced€in€the€United€States€in€the€1960's.€€Probabilities€associatedÏwith€word€use€can€be€used€as€a€general€norm€or€expectation€for€use€of€written€words/ideas€in€a€broad,€contemporaryÏAmerican€context.€€Differences€from€such€expectations€become€significant€for€social€science€text€analysis.€€AÏsummary€of€a€variety€of€US„based€text€tends€to€confirm€the€stability€of€these€general€probability€distributions.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ð12.à0 @ àFor€example,€in€the€sentence,€"Work€like€mine€keeps€me€from€doing€my€best.",€the€idea€of€"self"€appears€three€timesРߎ  Ð(e.g.€mine,€me,€my)€out€of€nine€words€or€òòp(i,k)óó€=€.333.€€If€the€expected€occurrence€of€this€category€is€òòP(i,k)óó€=€.045Ð  O  Ðand€the€standard€deviation€of€this€category's€usage€across€contexts€is€òòS(i)óó€=€.028,€then€the€E-score€can€be€calculatedÐ a  Ðas€follows:Ô#†'X¼ÃXò'ò’U§µ#ÔÐ"Ñ @Œ#@Œ# Ðß>€B-` 0  `€>ßâ èéèéèŒ#èŒ#â°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èéèéèéèéâ°â èŒ#èŒ#èéèéâÔ‡'ò’UòX'X¼ÃÔà0 @ àThis€suggests€that€the€idea€category€"self"€occurs€more€frequently€than€one€would€expect€if€the€nine€words€reflectedÐ ‡6 Ðusual€English€conversation.Ð @Œ#@Œ# ÐÔ#†'X¼ÃXò'ò’U»Õ#ÔÌÌò òReferencesó óÐ ÛŠ ÐÌÔ€'ò’UòX'X¼ÃÔà0 @ àà è àAndren,€G.€(1981).€"Reliability€and€Content€Analysis",€chapter€2€in€K.€E.€Rosengren,€(ed.),€òòAdvances€in€Content€Analysisóó.Ð ®] ÐBeverly€Hills,€CA:€Sage.Ð @Œ#@Œ# Ðà0 @ àà è àAnderson,€A.€B.€(1970).€€"Structure€of€Semantic€Space",€chapter€17€in€E.€F.€Borgatta€&€G.€W.€Bohrnstedt,€(eds.),ÏòòSociological€Methodology:€1970óó.€San€Francisco,€CA:€Jossey-Bass.€Ðñ @Œ#@Œ# Ðà0 @ àà è àBarley,€S.€R.€(1983).€"Semiotics€and€the€Study€of€Occupational€and€Organizational€Cultures",€òòAdministrative€ScienceÐ ²a  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